【大二英美概况】_英美概况是什么课程「建议收藏」

第一章节：

Section 1 The Cultural Iceberg：第一部分文化冰山

冰山理论认为，每种不同的文化就像一个独立的巨大冰山，可以分为两部分：水线以上的文化和水线以下的文化。水线以上的文化仅占整体文化的一小部分，但它更可见，有形且易于随时间变化，因此更容易被人们注意到。水线以下的文化是无形的，无形的，并且难以随时间变化。它占了整个文化的大部分，但要吸引人们的注意力并不容易。水线以上的文化部分主要是人们的暴露行为，例如不同文化背景的人们的说话习惯和生活方式。水线以下的文化包含信念，价值观和思维模式，是构成人的行为的主体。尽管看不到水线以下的部分，但它完全支撑了水线以上的部分，并影响了整个人的各个方面。如果不同文化之间存在冲突，那么第一个接触就是水面以下的价值观，信念和思维方式。
冰山上层：Behaviors & Practices Characteristics which are apparent to the casual observer行为与实践–随意性观察者明显的特征 冰山下层：
问题：课本贴着答案；

Section 1 The Iceberg Metaphor：第一节冰山隐喻

The Iceberg metaphor for culture shows a cruise ship sailing close to the iceberg for a look at this foreign territory. Part of the iceberg is immediately visible; part of it emerges and submerges with the tides, and its foundations go deep beneath the surface.
冰山对文化的隐喻显示，一艘游轮驶近冰山，驶向这片外国领土。冰山的一部分立即可见，一部分浮出水面，随潮水淹没，其地基深埋在地表之下。

Above the water line:
在输水线上方：

Aspects of culture are explicit,visible, and taught. This includes written explanations,as well as those thousands of skills and information conveyed through formal lessons, suchas manners or computing long division or baking bread. Also above water are the tangibleaspects: From the “cultural markers”tourists seek out such as French bread or Guatemalanweaving, to the conformity in how people dress, the way they pronounce the letter ““R,” howthey season their food, the way they expect and office to be furnished.
文化的各个方面都是明确的、可见的和被教导的。这包括书面解释，以及通过正式课程、礼仪或计算长分割或烘烤面包传递的数千种技能和信息。水面上还有一些有形的方面：从游客寻找的“文化标志”(如法国面包或危地马拉编织)，到人们的着装方式、字母“R”的发音方式、食物的季节、预期的方式和办公室的布置。

At the water line:
在输水线上：

The transition zone is where the cultural observer has to be more alert:“now you seeit now you don’t,” the area where implicit understandings become talked about, explained-mystical experiences are codified into a creed; the area where official explanations andteachings become irrational, contradictory, and inexplicable—where theology becomes fath.
过渡地带是文化观察者必须更加警惕的地方：“现在你看到了，现在你看不到了。”在这个领域里，隐含的理解被谈论，解释说–神秘的经历被编纂成一种信条；官方的解释和教诲变得不合理、矛盾和无法解释–在那里神学变成了宿命。

Below the water line:
在水线以下：

“Hidden”culture: The habits, assumptions,understandings, values, judgments … thatwe know but do not or cannot articulate.Usually these aspects are not taught directly. Thinkabout mealtime, for example, and the order you eat foods at dinner: Do you end with dessert?
“隐藏”文化：习惯、假设、理解、价值观、判断……我们知道，但不知道或不能表达。通常，这些方面不是直接传授的。例如，想想吃饭时间和你晚餐时的饮食顺序：你会以甜点结束吗？
With a pickle? With tea? Nuts and cheese? Just have one cowrse with no concluding dish? Or, inthese modern times, do you dispense with a sit-doun meal altogether?Or consider how youknow if someone is treating you in a friendly manner: Do they shake hands? Keep a respectfuldistance with downeast eyes? Leap up and hug you? Address you by your full name? Thesesorts of daily rules are learned by osmosis—you may know what tastes “right”or when you’retreated “right”, but because these judgments are under-the-waterline, it usually doesn’t occurto you to question or explain those feelings. 用泡菜？喝点茶？坚果和奶酪？就吃一只没吃完的牛皮吗？或者，在这些现代时代，你是否完全不吃一顿坐顿饭？或者考虑一下，如果有人以友好的方式对待你，你会如何知道：他们握手吗？和唐斯特眼神保持尊敬的距离？跳起来拥抱你？用你的全名称呼你？这些日常规则都是通过渗透学到的–你可能知道什么是“正确”的味道，或者当你“正确”的时候，但是因为这些判断是在水平线下的，所以你通常不会质疑或解释这些感觉。

提取重要信息绘制成表格：：

Section 2 Definitions of Culture第二节文化定义

Culture is a complex system of behavior, values, beliefs, traditions and artifacts, which is transmitted through generations. Let us discover the meaning of culture, and its significance in the life of an individual and society. 文化是一个复杂的系统的行为，价值观，信仰，传统和文物，这是通过代代相传。让我们发现文化的意义，以及它在个人和社会生活中的意义。

DEFINITIONS
定义

Edward Tylor
爱德华·泰勒

“Culture” is considered to be a complex term, and a variety of anthropologists andresearchers have defined it in various ways. Some of these definitions have been listed below.
“文化”被认为是一个复杂的术语，各种人类学家和研究人员都以不同的方式对它进行了定义。

“Culture … is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,morals, law,
“文化……是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律在内的复杂整体，

custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”
习惯，以及人类作为社会成员所获得的任何其他能力和习惯。“

Kroeber & Kluckhohn
克鲁伯&克鲁克霍恩

“Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired andtransmitted by symbols,constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,including their embodiment in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists oftraditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attachedvalues; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, onthe other, as conditional elements of future action.”-Kroeber & Kluckhohn “文化包括由符号获得和传递的行为的模式，包括显性和隐性的模式，构成人类群体的独特成就，包括它们在文物中的体现；文化的基本核心是传统(即历史衍生和选定的)思想，特别是它们的附带价值；文化系统一方面可以被视为行动的产物，另一方面可以被视为未来行动的条件要素。”

—T.Schwartz
-施瓦茨

“Culture consists of the derivatives of experience, more or less organized, learned orcreated by the individuals of a population, including those images or encodementsand their interpretations (meanings) transmitted from past generations, fromcontemporaries, or formed by individuals themselves.”-T. Schwartz
“文化是由人口中的个人或多或少组织、学习或创造的经验衍生物，包括那些图像或密码，以及它们从前辈、同时代人或个人自己形成的解释(意义)。”-

• Geert Hofstede
  -Geert Hofstede

“[Culture] is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the membersof one group or category of people from another.”-Geert Hofstede
“[文化]是头脑的集体规划，它区分了一个群体或一类人的成员和另一类人。”

… the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people,but different for each individual, communicated from one generation to the next.”-Matsumoto
…一群人共有的态度、价值观、信仰和行为的集合，但每个人的态度、价值观、信仰和行为各不相同，代代相传。

“Culture is what makes you a stranger when you’re away from home.”-Philip Bock“Culture is a well-organized unity divided into two fundamental aspects – a body ofartifacts and a system of customs.”-Bronislaw Malinowski “当你离家出走时，文化会使你成为陌生人。”–菲利普·博克(Philip Bock)：“文化是一种组织严密的统一，分为两个基本方面–一套文物和一套风俗体系。”–布罗尼斯瓦夫·马林诺夫斯基

“Culture is a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values,orientations to life, beliefs,policies,procedures and behavioral conventions that are shared by a group of people,and that influence (but do not determine) each member’s behavior and his / herinterpretations of the “meaning” of other people’s behavior.”-Spencer-Oatey
文化是一套模糊的基本假设和价值观、对生活的取向、信念、政策、程序和行为习惯，是一群人共有的，影响(但并不决定)每个成员的行为以及他/她对他人行为的“意义”的解释。

MANIFESTATIONS
表现形式

Lloyd Kwast’s model of culture, and his “Man from Mars”technique help us to get abetter understanding of culture through the different levels or layers through which culture ismanifesteil.In this technique, we try to imagine things from the perspective of an alien who haslanded onto our planet, and is observing a group of people in an enclosure. The different levelsof understanding have been depicted and described below: 劳埃德·夸斯特(Lloyd Kwast)的文化模型，以及他的“火星人”(Man From)技术，帮助我们通过文化疯子的不同层次或不同层次来更好地理解文化。这种技术，我们试图从一个外星人的角度去想象已经登陆我们星球的人，并观察一群被围在一起的人。下面描述和描述了不同层次的理解：
Behavior – What is done?
行为-做了什么？

The first thing the alien notices is the behavior of the peopleand their activities, dressing style, attitudes, etc. Some peoplemay be standing, some sitting and may be listening to a person,some might be playing, etc. By simply observing these activitieshe is unable to understand the logic behind them.ssato3bbrlteni
外星人注意到的第一件事是人们的行为–以及他们的活动、着装风格、态度等。有些人站着，有些人坐着听人讲话，有些人可能在玩等等。

values-What is good or best?
价值观-什么是好的还是最好的？

On asking them about the reasons for their activities, he comes to know that people choseto indulge in activities that are considered good. This differentiation of good or best comesfrom “values.” Values represent the duties or activities that one “ought to do”or “should do””tobe in sync with the pattern of life.
当他问他们活动的原因时，他知道人们会沉溺于被认为是好的活动中。好的或最好的区别来自于“价值”。价值观代表一个人“应该做”或“应该做”的职责或活动，以与生活模式同步。

Beliefs-What is true?
信仰-什么是真的？

On further interrogation he realizes that these values are not decided arbitrarily but stemfrom “beliefs.” He finds out that certain beliefs (operating beliefs) greatly influence the valuesand behavior, whereas certain beliefs (theoretical beliefs) have very less practical impact onvalues and behavior. Hence, certain people may have a different set of beliefs but behave in asimilar manner, and vice versa. 在进一步的盘问中，他认识到这些价值观不是武断的，而是源于“信仰”，他发现某些信念(经营信念)对价值观和行为有很大的影响，而某些信念(理论信仰)对价值观和行为的实际影响却很小，因此，某些人可能有不同的信念，但行为方式不同，反之亦然。

Worldview -What is real?
世界观-什么是真实的？

The deepest level of understanding that forms the basis for a particular set of beliefs is“worldview.” Worldview implies the way we interpret reality, and refers to the way we seeourselves, relative to the world. It includes the ideas behind the meaning and reasons forhuman existence, the notions of evil, divine and supernatural.
形成特定信念基础的最深层次的理解是“世界观”。世界观意味着我们对现实的解读方式，以及我们相对于世界的看法。它包括人类存在的意义和理由背后的思想、邪恶、神圣和超自然的概念。

SIGNIFICANCE
意义

The knowledge necessary for survival, and adaptation to our natural and socialenvironment, is acquired through culture. Culture is what imbibes into us the knowledge ofgood and bad, acceptable and non-acceptable, socializing, etc. Knowingly or unknowingly, itplays a major role in shaping our personality and behavior. Each individual has a distinct andunique personality. However, within a group, there exist certain regularities in behavior. Thiscan be attributed to the culture in which they grow up. In addition, culture also influencesour perception of reality and worldly concepts. Our interpretations of the actions and eventsaround us are molded by our culture. It forms the basic foundation of our life and behavior. 生存和适应自然和社会环境所需的知识是通过文化获得的。文化是把好的和坏的、可接受的和不可接受的、社交等的知识灌输给我们的东西。它在塑造我们的个性和行为方面起着重要的作用。每个人都有自己独特的个性。然而，在一个群体中，存在着一定的行为规律。这可以归因于他们成长的文化。此外，文化也会影响我们对现实和世俗观念的认识。我们对我们周围的行动和事件的解释是由我们的文化塑造的。它是我们生活和行为的基本基础。

问题：课本上贴着答案；；

三、 PART ：C：Concepts and Theories概念和理论

Section 1 The Basic Elements of Culture第一节文化的基本要素

Section 2 The Major Characteristics of Culture第二节文化的主要特征

In order to better understand culture, it is useful to closely examine its characteristics andtheir ramifications.
为了更好地了解文化，仔细研究其特点及其影响是有益的。

(1) Culture is acquired.
(1)获得文化。

Culture is an acquired quality or behavior. It is not biologically inherited but learnedsocially by individuals. In other words any behavior or quality which is socially acquired orlearned is called culture.Human beings learn or acquire culture by living in group. He learns itfrom society through education.
文化是一种后天获得的品质或行为。它不是生物遗传的，而是由个人学习的。换句话说，任何社会习得或学习的行为或品质都被称为文化。人类通过集体生活来学习或获得文化。他通过教育向社会学习。

(2) Culture is social.
(2)文化是社会性的。

Culture is not individual but social in nature. As a social product culture develops throughsocial interaction which is shared by all. Without social interaction or social relations it is verydifficult and almost impossible to be cultured. Culture is inclusive of the expectations of themembers of the groups. It is created or originated in society. Hence it is social.
文化不是个体的，而是社会性的。文化作为一种社会产品，是在社会互动中发展起来的，是人人共享的。没有社会交往或社会关系，培养是非常困难和几乎不可能的。文化包含了群体成员的期望。它是在社会中创造或起源的。因此，它是社会性的。

(3) Culture is transmissive.
(3)文化具有传播性。

Culture is transmitted from one generation to another. It passes from parents to childrenand so on. This transmission is a continuous and spontaneous process. It never remainsconstant. Man inherits or learns culture from his ancestors and passes it to his successors. Inthis way culture constantly accumulates.
文化是代代相传的。它从父母传给孩子等等。这种传播是一个持续和自发的过程。它永远不会保持不变。人类继承或学习他的祖先的文化，并将其传给他的继承人。这样，文化就会不断积累。

(4) Culture fulfills some needs.
(4)文化满足了一些需要。

Culture fulfills many social, psychological, moral, etc.needk of individnaleIt fulfills the
文化满足了许多社会、心理、道德等方面的需要。
needs of both society and individuals. For example, religion used to fulfill the solidarity andintegrative needs of society. Our needs for food, clothing, shelter, name, fame, status andposition are fulfilled. 社会和个人的需要。例如，宗教过去满足社会的团结和一体化需要。我们对食物、衣服、住所、名望、地位和地位的需求都得到了满足。

(5) Culture is shared.
(5)文化共享。

Culture is not possessed by a single or a few individuals. Culture is shared by a majorityof individuals. Hence culture is collective in nature. For example polytheism is our culture. Itmeans a majority of Indians believe in polytheism. 文化不是一个人或少数人所拥有的。文化是由大多数人分享的。因此，文化在性质上是集体的。例如，多神论是我们的文化。这意味着大多数印度人相信多神教。

(6) Culture is idealistic.
(6)文化是理想主义的。

Culture is idealistic in nature, because it embodies the ideals, values and norms of thegroup. It sets ideal goals before individuals which are worth attaining. In other words culture isthe sum total of ideals and values of individuals in society. 文化在本质上是理想主义的，因为它体现了群体的理想、价值观和规范。它在个人面前设定了理想的目标，这些目标是值得实现的。换句话说，文化是个人在社会中的理想和价值观的总和。

(7) Culture is cumulative.
(7)文化是累积的。

Culture is not created in one day or one year. It gradually accumulates through centuries.Beliefs, art,morals, knowledge are gradually stored up and become part of culture. Henceculture is the social heritage. 文化不是在一天或一年内创造出来的。它经过几个世纪的积累，艺术、道德、知识逐渐积累，成为文化的一部分。文化是社会遗产。

(8) Culture is adaptive.
(8)文化是适应性的。

Culture possesses adaptive capacity. It is not static. It undergoes changes. Differentaspects of culture adapt with new environment or challenges posed by social and physicalenvironment. Adaptation refers to the process of adjustment. And culture helps man in thisprocess of adjustment.
文化具有适应能力。它不是静态的。它会经历变化。文化的不同方面适应新的环境或社会和物质环境带来的挑战。适应是指调整的过程。文化有助于人类在这一过程中进行调整。

(9) Culture is variable.
(9)文化是可变的。

Culture is variable and changeable. It varies and changes from society to society, becauseeach and every society has its own culture. It also varies within a society from time to time.Ways of living of people of a particular society varies from time to time. absolat moethy
文化是变化无常的。因为每个社会都有自己的文化，所以每个社会都有不同的变化和变化。在一个社会中，生活方式也会不时变化，一个特定社会的人的生活方式也会不时变化。[医]戒酒

(10) Culture is organized.
(10)组织文化。

Culture has an order or system. As Tylor says culture is a “complex whole.”It meansdifferent parts of culture are well organized into a cohesive whole. Different parts of culture areorganized in such a way that any change in one part brings corresponding changes in otherparts.
文化有秩序或制度。正如Tylor所说，文化是一个“复杂的整体”，它意味着文化的不同部分被很好地组织成一个完整的整体。文化的不同部分被组织成这样一种方式，即一个部分的任何变化都会在另一个部分带来相应的变化。

(11) Culture is communicative.
(11)文化是交际的。

Man makes and uses symbol. He also possesses the capacity of symbolic communication.Culture is based on symbol and it communicates through different symbols. Common ideasand social heritage etc. are communicated from one generation to another. In our society”red color”stands for danger. In Indian culture red color symbolizes danger. Hence culture iscommunicative in nature.
人类创造和使用符号。他还具有符号交流的能力，文化是以符号为基础的，它通过不同的符号进行交流。共同的思想和社会遗产等是代代相传的。在我们的社会中，红色代表危险。在印度文化中，红色象征着危险。因此，文化在本质上是交际的。

(12) Language is the chief vehicle of culture.
(12)语言是文化的主要载体。

Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next. It never remains static. Thistransmission becomes possible through language. Culture is learned through language.
文化是代代相传的。它从不是静止的。通过语言实现了偷窃任务。文化是通过语言学习的。
(13)Culture is the total social heritage.
(13)文化是整个社会遗产。

We know culture is a social product. It is linked win e pal 1noufaaoiISSlon pastcontinues to live in culture. It is shared by all.
我们知道文化是一种社会产品。与此相关联的是，Win e PAL 1 noufaaoiISSlon继续生活在文化中。它为所有人所共享。

Section 3 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension Theory第三节霍夫斯泰德的文化维度理论

Dimensions of culture are an important nonovnowiDhow cultures view different aspects of businece pet nternational business.ooh the
文化维度是一个重要的非文化维度，文化如何看待国际商务的不同方面。
international business market.
国际商业市场。

You know, dogs are interesting animals. If you have ever watched a group of differentbreeds of dogs together, you see that there are dogs who are aggressive, those that are mellow,some want to be the alpha male and some are content just playing and having a good time.These different dimensions are very similar to Geert Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension Theory, atheory that looks at unique aspects of cultures and rates them on a scale for comparison. Now,I am not trying to say dogs and humans are the same, but the way they interact is quite similar.
狗是有趣的动物。如果你曾经一起看过一组不同品种的狗，你会发现有些狗是好斗的，有些是成熟的，有些想成为阿尔法男性，有些则满足于玩耍和享受美好时光。这些不同的维度与Geert Hofstede的文化维度理论非常相似，该理论着眼于文化的独特方面，并将它们按一个尺度进行比较。现在，我并不是说狗和人类是一样的，但是它们的互动方式是非常相似的。

The Five Different Types of Hofstede’s Dimension
Hofstede维数的五种不同类型

Geert Hofstede is a professor who researched how people from different countries andcultures interact based on six different categories of cultural dimensions. Those categories are:
GeertHofstede是一位教授，他根据六种不同的文化维度研究来自不同国家和文化的人是如何互动的。这些类别是：

Power Distance: This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerfulmembers of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.oreafpntDIndividualism vs. Collectivism: This dimension focuses on the questions about whetherpeople prefer a close knit network of people or prefer to be left alone to fend forthemselves.pi bamlf eveol as veilT mlooe rpo lo apoles acor srobony bns egade Masoulinity vs. Femininity: Masculinity represents a preference in society forachievement, heroism,assertiveness and material reward for success. Its opposite,femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak andquality of life. 权力距离：这个维度表达了社会中不那么有权势的成员接受和期望权力分配不平等的程度。这一维度关注的是人们是否更喜欢一个紧密的人际网络，还是更愿意一个人独处来保护自己。pi bamlf eveeol就像vilt mlooe rpo lo apole Acor srobony BNS Egade Masoulinity vs.女性：男性是社会中对成功的一种偏好、英雄主义、自信和物质奖励。它的反面，女性气质，代表了一种偏好合作，谦虚，关心弱者和生活质量。

Uncertainty Avoidance: This dimension expresses the degree to which the member of asociety feels uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
不确定性回避：这个维度表达了成员对不确定性和模糊性感到不舒服的程度。

Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation: Long-term orientation dimension can beinterpreted as dealing with society’s search for virtue.Societies with a short-termorientation generally have a strong concern with establishing the absolute truth. 长期取向与短期取向：长期取向维度可以解释为社会对道德的追求，短期取向的社会一般都强烈关注建立绝对真理。

What Do These Mean?
这些是什么意思？

As we look at the different aspects and definitions of these dimensions,we can beginto see how a manager would have to deal with them and interpret them in an internationalsetting. Just looking at individualism verses collectivism shows us that there are societies,orpeople, that accept working alone and look at their existence in terms of being an individualrather than part of a group.However, a collectivist would look towards the group’s successmore so than their own personal satisfaction or accomplishments. Would it surprise you thatthe US is high on the individual scale while Japan is more on the collectivist side? This meansAmericans think more”I” than”we,” while Japan is exactly the other way around. 当我们查看这些维度的不同方面和定义时，我们可以开始了解经理将如何处理它们并在国际化环境中解释它们。只要看一看集体主义的个人主义诗句，我们就会发现，有些社会或人接受单独工作，从个人而不是群体的一部分的角度来看待他们的存在。然而，集体主义者更看重的是群体的成功，而不是个人的满足感或成就。美国个人规模高，而日本更倾向于集体主义，这会让你感到惊讶吗？这意味着美国人认为“我”比“我们”更多，而日本则完全相反。

Staying with this example, the US has a low score for uncertainty avoidance. Basically, weare okay with ambiguity and not knowing everything for certain. On the other hand, Japan isvery high on this scale, and they do not want uncertainty; they want facts.
在这个例子中，美国在避免不确定性方面得分很低。基本上，我们对模棱两可和不确定的一切都没意见。另一方面，日本在这个规模上非常高，他们不想要不确定性，他们想要的是事实。

By now, you are likely thinking that one country compared to another; one will be highand one will be low. That is not the case though. Take, for example, power distance. Japan andthe US are almost equal when it comes to their acceptance of the distribution of power.
到现在为止，你可能会认为一个国家与另一个国家相比，一个国家将是高的，一个将是低的。但情况并非如此。以功率距离为例。日本和美国在接受权力分配方面几乎是平等的。

Knowing what you do now about these two countries, where do you think they land onlong-term verses short-term orientation? This, like the other dimensions, directly relatesto their culture and societal norms. To that point, the US is lower in the masculinity versusfemininity scale, while Japan is much higher. Thus, Japan looks for a more harmonious worldwhere everyone works together, but Americans are fine being the hero. nmtnib inacftb s9uT Knowing what you do now about these two countries, where do you think they land onlong-term verses short-term orientation? This, like the other dimensions, directly relatesto their culture and societal norms. To that point, the US is lower in the masculinity versusfemininity scale, while Japan is much higher. Thus, Japan looks for a more harmonious worldwhere everyone works together, but Americans are fine being the hero. nmtnib inacftb s9uT

It is easy to see that different cultures have different views of the world based on theirculture and history. Understanding these areas and being able to identity them will help you towork with and understand people of varying backgrounds and cultures. If you know the areaswe have discussed so far, you at least have a starting point to understand the person. po
根据不同的文化和历史，不难看出不同的文化对世界的看法是不同的。了解这些领域，并能够识别它们，将有助于你与不同背景和文化的人一起工作并了解他们。如果你知道我们讨论过的领域，你至少有一个了解这个人的起点。阿宝

Hofstede was trying to point out that we are all really not the same; different cultureshave different views of life and business. They are not right or wrong, just different. Thesedimensions have shaped cultures, and these cultures are shaped by these dimensions. It’s arerelving:cycle. To illustrate that point, the US is an aggressive culture. We strive for success,are driven to succeed and thrive on competition. That is our culture, and that culture helpsshape and promote those aspects of our society.They are forever linked in a revolving door.
霍夫斯特德试图指出，我们都不一样，不同的文化有不同的人生观和商业观。他们不是对或错，只是不同而已。这些维度塑造了文化，而这些文化被这些维度所塑造。这是循环。为了说明这一点，美国是一个咄咄逼人的文化。我们为成功而奋斗，在竞争中立于不败之地。这就是我们的文化，这种文化帮助和促进了我们社会的这些方面，它们永远在一个旋转门中联系在一起。

第二章节：

How Much Do You Know about the UK and the US?你知道英国和美国吗？

二、 PART B：Focus on the UK关注英国

Section 1 The UK — Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette

第一节英国-语言，文化，风俗礼仪

Welcome to our guide to the UK. This is useful for anyone researching British culture,customs, manners, etiquette, values and wanting to understand the people better. You may be
欢迎来到我们的英国指南。这对于任何研究英国文化、风俗习惯、礼仪、价值观和想更好地了解英国人民的人都是有用的。你可能是
going to Britain on business, for a visit or even hosting British colleagues or clients in your owncountry.Remember this is only a very basic level introduction and is not meant to stereotypeall Brits you may meet! 去英国出差，去拜访，甚至接待你自己国家的英国同事或客户。请记住，这只是一个非常基本的介绍，并不是为了让所有的英国人都能见到你！

I. Facts and Statistics
一.事实和统计

reliet tdcarsuahtdsmovib
[医]雷奈

Location: Western Europe, islands including the northern one-sixth of the island ofIreland between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, northwest of Franceib r s.larm
地理位置：西欧，包括爱尔兰岛北部六分之一的岛屿，位于北大西洋和北海之间，佛朗西伯的西北方。

Capital: London
首都：伦敦

at lplf apbitRl ashiehos iflsar wnl jedfw
在lplf apbitRl ashiehos iflsar wnl jedfw

Climate: temperate: moderated by prevailing southwest winds over the North AtlanticCurrent; more than one-half of the days are overcast
气候：温带：受北大西洋地区西南风的影响，超过一半的时间是阴天。

adpsodf wtaddaisiE sdT
Adpsodf wtaddaisie sdt

Population: 60,776,238 (July 2007)
人口：60 776 238人(2007年7月)

BA的0nrda ganubs beislenossb
BA的0 nrda ganubs beislenossb

Ethnic Make-up: white (of which English 83.6%,Scottish 8.6%, Welsh 4.9%, Northern Irish2.9%) 92.1%, black 2%, Indian 1.8%, Pakistani 1.3%, mixed 1.2%, other 1.6% (2001 census) Religions: Christian (Anglican, Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, Methodist) 71.6%, Muslim2.7%,Hindu 1%, other 1.6%, unspecified or none 23.1% (2001 census)ol saoorlo os ob pod 种族组成：白人(其中英语83.6%，苏格兰8.6%，威尔士4.9%，北爱尔兰2.9%)92.1%，黑人2%，印度1.8%，巴基斯坦1.3%，混合1.2%，其他1.6%(2001年人口普查)：基督教(圣公会、罗马天主教、长老会、卫理公会)71.6%、穆斯林2.7%、印度教1%、其他1.6%、不明或无23.1%(2001年人口普查)

Government: constitutional monarchy
政府：君主立宪制

ageusrOeiworul soipeEinass,barta,euhenanonnob
Oeiworul soipeEinass，Barta，euhenanonnob

II.Language in the UK
二.联合王国的语言

saThe United Kingdom does not have a constitutionally defined official language. English isthe main language (being spoken monolingually by more than 70% of the UK population) andis thus the official language. 联合王国没有宪法规定的官方语言。英语是主要语言(70%以上的英国人口使用单一语言)，因此是官方语言。

od Other native languages to the Isles include Welsh, Irish, Ulster Scots, Cornish, Gaelic andBritish Sign Language.
其他当地语言包括威尔士语，爱尔兰语，阿尔斯特苏格兰人，康沃尔语，盖尔语和英国手语。

ts Immigrants have naturally brought many foreign languages from across the globe. .bsaoloIII.British Society, People and Culture
移民自然带来了来自世界各地的许多外语。英国社会、人民与文化

Section 3 Great Britain: English Personality and

第3节：英国：英国的人格与
The English national character is dualistic: One aspect is conservative, the otherextroverted.The pub is a fine example of the conservative aspect of English character. Thepub, unlike the bar in the US, is a focal point for the “locals.” One goes to the pub for the samereasons one used to go to church: for fellowship and spiritual enlightenment. There is nothingflashy or plastic about most pubs. Many look like one’s living room, full of plush, soft chairs,couches, a fireplace, and bright lights. The pubs keep respectable hours, too — open from 10a.m. to 2 p.m. and 5 p.m. to 10 p.m.; Friday and Saturday nights they stay open until 1l p.m.There are no all-night or 3 a.m. public bars. When the pubs close everyone goes home. Thepub represents pleasure with control and in good taste.
英国的民族性格是双重的：一方面是保守的，另一个是外向型的。酒吧是英国性格保守方面的一个很好的例子。与美国的酒吧不同，这家酒吧是“本地人”的焦点。一个人去酒吧参加过去常去教堂的那一季：为了友谊和精神启蒙。大多数酒吧没有什么华丽的或塑料的。许多人看起来像一个人的客厅，充满了毛绒、柔软的椅子、沙发、壁炉和明亮的灯光。酒吧的营业时间也很可观–从上午10点开始营业。到下午两点。下午5点。到晚上10点；星期五和星期六晚上营业到下午1点。没有通宵或凌晨3点。公共酒吧。当酒吧关门时，每个人都回家了。酒馆代表着控制的乐趣和良好的品味。
This control is exemplified in English humor. Most Americans find nothing funny inEnglish comedy shows, since English humor is word oriented while American humor is moreaction oriented.
这种控制在英语幽默中得到了体现。大多数美国人在英语喜剧节目中没有发现什么好笑的东西，因为英语幽默是以词为导向的，而美国幽默是以反应为导向的。

The same control that is found in English pubs and humor is also found in the Englishpace of living. Where else does one stand in line quietly for the bus or the taxi?
同样的控制在英国酒吧和幽默也发现在英语的生活空间。还有一个人静静地排队等公共汽车还是出租车呢？
Tea drinking is another expression of the English spirit of control and patience.Onlybarbarians drink tea by placing a tea bag in a cup of hot water. There is a whole ritual to teadrinking in England: The water must be boiling rapidly, the teapot warm, the tea loose, thensteeped at least 5 minutes in a teapot covered by a tea cosy.Then and only then does one pourthe tea into a cup and drink it. Not only old ladies in lace with Pekingese on their laps drinktea, but a whole nation of workers, entrepreneurs,and aristocrats have tea for breakfast,lunch, and, of course, all activity stops in the afternoon for the customary tea break.
饮茶是英国人控制和忍耐精神的另一种表现。只有野蛮人把茶袋放在一杯热水里才能喝茶。在英国，洗茶有一个完整的仪式：水必须很快沸腾，茶壶要暖和，茶要松，然后在一个茶壶里泡上至少5分钟，然后再把茶倒进杯子里喝。不仅老妇人们和北京人在一起喝着茶，而且一个由工人、企业家和贵族组成的国家的早餐、午餐都喝着茶，当然，所有的活动都在下午停下来喝传统的茶。
However, there is another side to the English Character — the bizarre, the audacious, and
然而，英国人的性格还有另一面–古怪的、大胆的和
the innovative. It was not the US but conservative England that produced the Beatles withtheir long hair and sounds that have influenced a decade of rock musicians and adolescents.Out of a very straight middle-class family comes the androgynous Mick Jagger of the RollingStones whose very existence violates the rigid sexual stereotypes of Western culture.
创新精神。不是美国，而是保守的英国创造了披头士乐队，他们的长发和声音影响了十几年的摇滚乐家和青少年。在一个非常直率的中产阶级家庭中，出现了一对雌雄同体的米克·贾格尔(Mick Jagger)，他们的存在违背了西方文化中刻板的性别刻板印象。

The English are innovators and experimenters in many areas: A. S.Neill’s Summerhillhas become the model for progressive education.R. D. Laing,psychiatry’s anti-psychiatrist,claims that it is not the individual who is insane but his society, which constantly categorizeshim and forces him to fit into abstract norms. It was in England that Marx wrote Das Kapitalwhich so traumatized Western civilization and radicalized Eastern ones. Perhaps because of Marx’s ever-present presence,England was one of the first countries to have socialized medicine and welfare benefits for all.
英国人在许多方面都是创新者和实验者：A.S.Neill的“Summer骨尔”已经成为进步教育的典范。精神病学的反精神病学家雷恩(R.D.Laing)声称，不是个人精神错乱，而是他的社会不断地对他进行分类，迫使他适应抽象的规范。正是在英国，马克思写了“达斯卡皮塔”(Das Kapital)，它给西方文明带来了极大的创伤，也使东方文明变得激进。也许是因为马克思的存在，英国是最早有社会化医疗和福利的国家之一。

Section 4 The Core British Values that

第四节英国核心价值观

Define our Nation
定义我们的国家
Schools are being told to promote British values.Here are 10 to start with …
学校被告知要提升英国的价值观。下面是10所学校的第一步。

We have never been especially good at defining what constitutes British values. For morethan two decades — and especially since the July 2005 bombings in London — politicianshave sought,with varying degrees of success and enthusiasm, to articulate the definingcharacteristics of the nation. There was a time when this would not have been necessary, sincethey would have been inculcated into everyone in the land through their schools and sharedcultural experiences. In an era of mass immigration and the segregation of some communitiesfrom mainstream society, as exposed by the so-called Trojan Horse affair in Birmingham, thisis no longer so straightforward.
我们从来没有特别擅长定义什么是英国价值观。二十多年来，尤其是自2005年7月伦敦爆炸案以来，政治人士一直在以不同程度的成功和热情寻求阐明国家的明确特征。有一段时间，这是不必要的，因为他们会被灌输到土地上的每一个人通过他们的学校和分享的文化经验。在一个大规模移民和将一些社区与主流社会隔离的时代，正如伯明翰所谓的特洛伊木马事件所暴露的那样，这不再是那么简单了。
When politicians are asked to set out what they consider to be core British values,they invariably emphasize abstract concepts such as tolerance, freedom, belief in personalresponsibility, mutual respect and fairness — all admirable in themselves but not uniqueto these shores. They are also values shared by most Muslims and other minorities livingin Britain. Indeed, some immigrant communities are often more family-inclined andcommunity-spirited than the settled population.
当政客们被要求阐述他们认为是英国核心价值观的时候，他们总是强调一些抽象的概念，比如宽容、自由、对个人责任的信仰、相互尊重和公平–这些都是值得钦佩的，但并不是唯一的。他们也是生活在英国的大多数穆斯林和其他少数民族的共同价值观。事实上，一些移民社区往往比定居人口更倾向于家庭，更具有社区精神。
British values are not just theoretical; they are rooted in the institutions and historythat underpin the nation, which politicians are often ambivalent about, or are reluctant topraise unequivocally for fear of offending someone. When the last government introducedcitizenship classes for immigrants,instead of it being unabashedly the sort of exercise seenin America — extolling a love of country, its rituals, democratic practices and even the freemarket — it became more a practical guide to living in Britain and what the entitlements ofcitizenship might bring.
英国价值观不仅是理论性的；它们植根于支撑国家的制度和历史，政客们往往对此矛盾不定，或不愿明确指责，以免冒犯他人。上一届政府为移民开设了公民身份课程，而不是像在美国那样肆无忌惮地推行公民身份–颂扬对国家的热爱、对国家的仪式、民主习俗，甚至是共济会–它更多地成为了生活在英国的实用指南，以及公民资格可能带来的好处。

So what might a set of shared British values look like?
那么，一套共同的英国价值观会是什么样子呢？

To begin with, it would emphasize the rule of law, and specifically the common lawtradition that can be traced back to before the Norman Conquest.Our society is based on theidea that we all abide by the same rules, whatever our wealth or status.As Thomas Fuller saidin 1733,“Be ye never so high the law is above you.”
首先，它将强调法治，特别是可以追溯到诺曼征服之前的普通法律传统。我们的社会是建立在这样的观念之上的，即我们都遵守同样的规则，无论我们的财富或地位如何。正如托马斯·富勒1733年所说的，“法律从来没有凌驾于你之上。”

Second is the sovereignty of the Crown in Parliament. The Lords, the Commons and themonarch constitute the supreme authority in the land. In recent years this has been extendedto the Supreme Court.
第二，王室在议会中的主权。上议院、下议院和主宰者构成了土地上的最高权威。近年来，这一情况已扩大到最高法院。

Third is tolerance: No one should be treated differently on the basis of belonging to aparticular group. By the same token, all parties, sects, faiths and ideologies must tolerate the
第三，耐受性：任何人都不应在属于分组的基础上被区别对待。同样，所有党派、教派、信仰和意识形态都必须容忍
existence of their rivals. On the other hand, there should be no toleration at all of unequaltreatment of men and women.
他们竞争对手的存在。另一方面，不应容忍对男女的不平等待遇。

Fourth is personal freedom and a presumption against state coercion.
第四，人身自由和不受国家胁迫的推定。

Fifth are free speech and freedom of expression, including an unfettered, vibrant andpluralistic media.
第五是言论自由和言论自由，包括自由、充满活力和多元化的媒体。

Sixth is a belief in private property and the freedom to buy and sell without fear ofconfiscation, to transfer ownership, to sign contracts and have them enforced.
第六，相信私有财产和买卖自由，而不必担心没收、转让所有权、签订合同并强制执行。

Seventh are those institutions that are quintessentially British and capture and reflect itscharacter. They would include the monarchy, the Armed Forces, the Church and, yes, the BBC.
第七是那些典型的英国机构，它们捕捉并反映了它的特性。他们将包括君主制、武装部队、教会，当然还有英国广播公司。

Eighth would be our history and culture. A lack of understanding of the past isinstrumental in a failure to comprehend the present. If Michael Gove, the Education Secretary,wants children to learn why British values matter he should make history a compulsorysubject to age 16.
第八是我们的历史和文化。缺乏对过去的理解是无法理解现在的原因。如果教育部长迈克尔·戈夫(MichaelGove)想让孩子们了解为什么英国价值观很重要，他应该把历史作为16岁的强制条件。

Ninth would be our love of sport and of fair play. We are not alone in this; but it is oftenforgotten that most of the major sports played around the world were codified in this country.
第九是我们对运动和公平竞争的热爱。我们并不是唯一这样的人，但人们常常忘记，世界上大多数主要的体育活动都是在这个国家制定的。

Last, in what is by no means an exhaustive list, is patriotism —not in the pretended sensederided by Johnson as “the last refuge of the scoundrel,” but real and generous love of country.
最后，绝不是一份详尽无遗的清单，而是爱国主义–不是被约翰逊戏称为“无赖的最后避难所”，而是对国家真正而慷慨的热爱。

Section 1 USA- Language, Culture,

第1节美国-语言，文化，

Customs and Etiquette
风俗礼仪
Welcome to our guide to the USA.This is useful for anyone researching America culture,customs, manners,etiquette, values and wanting to understand the people better.You maybe going to America on business, for a visit or even hosting American colleagues or clients inyour own country.Remember this is only a very basic level introduction and is not meant tostereotype all Americans you may meet!
欢迎来到我们的美国指南，这对任何研究美国文化、风俗习惯、礼仪、价值观和想更好地了解美国人民的人都是有用的。你可能会去美国出差，去拜访甚至接待你自己国家的美国同事或客户。请记住，这只是一个非常基本的介绍，并不是要刻板地看待你可能遇到的所有美国人！
I.Facts and Statistics
一.事实和统计

Location: North America, bordering both the North Atlantic Ocean and the North PacificOcean, between Canada and Mexico
地理位置：北美，毗邻北大西洋和北太平洋，位于加拿大和墨西哥之间

Capital: Washington, DC
首都：华盛顿特区

Climate: mostly temperate, but tropical in Hawaii and Florida, arctic in Alaska, semiarid
气候：大部分为温带，但夏威夷和佛罗里达为热带，阿拉斯加为北极，半干旱

in the great plains west of the Mississippi River, and arid in the Great Basin of the southwest.
位于密西西比河以西的大平原上，西南大盆地干旱。

Population: 301,139,947 (July 2007 est.)
人口：301 139 947(2007年7月估计)

Ethnic Make-up: white 81.7%, black 12.9%,Asian 4.2%,Amerindian and Alaska native 1%,native Hawaiian and other Pacific islander 0.2% (2003 est.)
种族组成：白人81.7%，黑人12.9%，亚裔4.2%，美洲印第安人和阿拉斯加土著1%，夏威夷土著和其他太平洋岛民0.2%(2003年排名第一)。

Religions: Protestant 52%，Roman Catholic 24%，Mormon 2%,Jewish 1%,Muslim 1%,other 10%, none 10% (2002 est.)
宗教：新教占52%，罗马天主教占24%，摩门教占2%，犹太人占1%，穆斯林占1%，其他占10%，不占10%(2002年最高)。

Government: Constitution-based federal republic
政府：以宪法为基础的联邦共和国
II.Language in the USA
二.美国的语言

The United States does not have an official language, but English is spoken by about 82%of the population as a native language. The variety of English spoken in the United States isknown as American English; together with Canadian English it makes up the group of dialectsknown as North American English.Spanish is the second-most common language in thecountry, spoken by almost 30 million people (or 12% of the population).
美国没有官方语言，但约82%的人口使用英语作为母语。在美国，英语的多样性被称为美国英语；与加拿大英语一起构成了一组被称为北美英语的方言。西班牙语是美国第二大通用语言，近3000万人(占总人口的12%)使用西班牙语。

III.American Society and Culture
三、美国社会与文化

Main Idea of Part l:
第一部分的主要思想：

America is ultimately a nation of immigrants and as a result is a cultural mish-mash inevery sense of the word. Not only is the country populated by people from foreign countriesbut all Americans in one way or another trace their ancestry back to another culture, whetherIrish, German, Italian or Scottish. Looking around any major city one will notice the “melting-pot”that it is.
美国最终是一个由移民组成的国家，因此在每个词的意义上都是一种文化上的混乱。这个国家不仅居住着来自外国的人，而且所有的美国人都以某种方式将他们的祖先追溯到另一种文化，无论是爱尔兰、德国、意大利还是苏格兰。环顾任何一个大城市，人们都会注意到它是一个“熔炉”。
Main Idea of Part 2:
第二部分的主要思想：

Most people who come to the United States may already know a few things about the peoplethrough TV.Although this is of course a skewed reality some of the stereotypes are true, especiallyAmerican friendliness and informality. People tend to not wait to be introduced, will begin tospeak with strangers as they stand in a queue, sit next to each other at an event, etc. Visitors canoften be surprised when people are so informal to the point of being very direct or even rude.
大多数来美国的人可能已经通过电视了解了一些人的一些事情，尽管这当然是一个扭曲的现实–有些刻板印象是真的，特别是美国人的友好和非正式。人们往往不会等待被介绍，当他们站在队列中时，会开始和陌生人在一起，在一个活动中坐在一起，等等。当人们非常不正式，甚至是粗鲁的时候，游客常常会感到惊讶。
Main Idea of Part 3:
第三部分的主要思想：

The country that coined the phrase obviously lives the phrase. In America, time is a veryimportant commodity. People “save”time and “spend”time as if it were money in the bank.Americans ascribe personality characteristics and values based on how people use time.For example, people who are on-time are considered to be good people, reliable people whoothers can count on.
创造这个短语的国家显然活在这个短语里。在美国，时间是一种非常重要的商品。人们把“节省”时间和“花”时间当作是银行里的钱。美国人根据人们如何使用时间来赋予人格特征和价值观。例如，准时的人被认为是好人，是其他人可以信赖的可靠的人。
Main Idea of Part 4:
第四部分的主要思想：

The family unit is generally considered the nuclear family, and is typically small (withexceptions among certain ethnic groups).Extended family relatives live in their own homes,often at great distances from their children.
家庭单位通常被认为是核心家庭，而且通常是很小的(某些族裔群体除外)。家庭亲属通常住在自己的家里，通常离孩子很远。

Individualism is prized, and this is reflected in the family unit. People are proud of theirindividual accomplishments, initiative and success, and may, or may not, share those sourcesof pride with their elders.
个人主义受到重视，这反映在家庭单位中。人们为他们个人的成就、主动性和成功而自豪，他们可以，也可能不会，与他们的长辈分享这些骄傲的源泉。

Section 3 American Character: As I See It

第三节美国性格：在我看来

The United Sates is a society of immigrants, the most multicultural and multinationalcountry in the world.In the 19th century it was called a “”melting pot,”however, nowadays suchterms as a “salad bowl”or a “pizza”characterize it much better. It means that all ingredients(nations,ethnic groups, peoples) are mixed and separated at a time.So, it is essential todetermine the American character and through understanding to evaluate the native culture.
美国是一个移民社会，是世界上最多元文化、最多民族的国家，19世纪被称为“大熔炉”，但如今却被称为“色拉碗”或“比萨饼”。这意味着所有的成分(民族、民族、民族)都是一次混合和分离的，因此，确定美国人的性格并通过理解来评价本土文化是至关重要的。
The Americans are shown as greedy, practical, not really intelligent individuals, and veryproud of their being the Americans. These are stereotypical features and they should be takeninto account very carefully.
美国人是贪婪的，务实的，并不是真正聪明的人，他们是美国人的典型。这些都是陈规定型的特征，应该非常仔细地加以考虑。

Considering the American worldview, one of the major values is freedom.The Americansconsider their society to be the freest and the best in the world. They regard it as a havenfor those who long for opportunities and freedom.They proudly state that even nowadaysthere are thousands of immigrants, dreaming of entering their country and expecting to havea chance to start a new better life. This value has developed historically through wars andstruggle, revolutions and slaughter. It is the first right, mentioned in the US Constitution’s Billof Rights and the most precious one.
考虑到美国的世界观，其中一个主要的价值观是自由，美国人认为他们的社会是世界上最自由和最好的社会。他们认为这是那些渴望机会和自由的人的避风港，他们自豪地说，即使是现在，也有成千上万的移民梦想着进入他们的国家，并期望有机会开始新的更美好的生活。这一价值在历史上是通过战争和斗争、革命和屠杀而发展起来的。这是美国宪法中提到的第一项权利，也是最宝贵的一项权利。
Practicality is the next characteristic feature of the American nation. Historians explainit by the permanent need of survival in the wildness, settlers faced on the new continent.Robust individualists had more chances to succeed. It was diligence and practicality that havebecome extremely important ever since.The Americans believe that work is the only way toachieve their ambitious goals. Materialistic values seem to be more important for them thanthe spiritual ones, because the latter do not have visual incarnation and, therefore, cannot bepalpable.
实用性是美国民族的下一个特征。历史学家解释了在荒野中生存的永久需要，殖民者在新的大陆上面对，如果个人主义者有更多的机会成功。从那时起，勤奋和务实就变得极其重要。美国人认为，工作是实现他们雄心勃勃的目标的唯一途径。物质价值似乎比精神价值更重要，因为后者没有视觉化身，因此，无法察觉。

Individualism has strong roots both in the American history and in its philosophy.lt determines all aspects of American life, being the most important cultural peculiarity.Individualism means self-reliance, economic self-sufficiency, self-assurance, self-help etc.Individualism persists even in huge complicated corporations, where each person is more orless independent, responsible for his work and encouraged to display initiative.The Americansseem to be extremely concerned about time; time is money for them.That is the reason for theexistence of such a great amount of how-to-do books and self-study benefits. Individualismis impossible without competition. The Americans appear to enjoy competitions everywhere,as competition is considered to be one of the best means of increasing productivity.Personalsuccess is another special feature of individualism. Every American citizen longs for successand besides, financial success appears to be much more important than the one in personallife. Individualism in general and a self-reliant individual in particular are somehow idealizedand worshiped in America.
个人主义在美国历史和哲学中都有着深厚的根基。它决定了美国生活的各个方面，是美国最重要的文化特性。个人主义意味着自力更生、经济自给自足、自我保证、自助等等。个人主义甚至在庞大的复杂企业中依然存在，在这些公司里，每个人都更独立，对自己的工作负责，并被鼓励表现自己的主动性。美国人似乎非常关心时间；时间是他们的金钱。这就是为什么存在如此大量的书籍和自学利益的原因。没有竞争就不可能有独立。美国人似乎在任何地方都喜欢竞争，因为竞争被认为是提高生产力的最佳手段之一。个人成功是个人主义的另一个特点。每个美国公民都渴望成功，而且，经济上的成功似乎比个人生活中的成功重要得多。在美国，个人主义，尤其是自力更生的个人，在某种程度上被理想化和崇拜。

Another value is mobility and attachment to constant changes. The origin of thiscultural peculiarity has deep historical roots. The Americans have always believed inthe abundance of resources and traveled from place to place in search of better livingconditions and business opportunities. It is very common for an American family to live inseveral cities during their lifetime. It is also essential for an American company to changeits organization and strategy quite often in order to find new opportunities on the way tosuccess.
另一个值是不断变化的移动性和依附性。这种文化特质的起源有着深厚的历史根源。美国人一直相信丰富的资源，到处旅行，寻找更好的生活条件和商业机会。对于一个美国家庭来说，在他们有生之年生活在几个城市里是非常普遍的。对于一家美国公司来说，为了在成功的道路上找到新的机会，经常改变其组织和战略也是至关重要的。

The most striking value of American society is an enormous feeling of patriotism. ThoughAmerica is a multicultural country and each ethnic group tries to preserve its national identity,American citizens are really proud to be Americans, they believe their country to be blessed byGod.
美国社会最突出的价值是一种巨大的爱国主义感。思想美国是一个多元文化的国家，每个民族都在努力维护自己的民族身份，美国公民为自己是美国人而感到骄傲，他们相信他们的国家会受到上帝的祝福。

lt is essential to mention several main features of a typical American personality. It is, firstof all, straightforwardness. Secondly, the Americans seem to be extremely open-minded andsincere.At last, the Americans are very active. They cannot stand wasting time.Their lives areclosely connected with work; moreover, the majority of Americans prefer active holidays andentertainment to staying at home with the TV switched on.
必须提到一个典型的美国人性格的几个主要特征。首先是直率。第二，美国人似乎非常开放和真诚，最后美国人非常活跃.他们无法忍受浪费时间，他们的生活与工作密切相关；此外，大多数美国人更喜欢积极的假期和娱乐，而不是呆在家里看电视。

Sports have an immense popularity in America. It is business,entertainment andescapism at a time. It is a fundamental part of the American national character. Professionalsportsmen are national heroes, symbols of success and prosperity; they are wealthy andphysically fit, therefore, they are considered to embody the American Dream. The Americansare inspired by winning, rather than by the game itself; “never be willing to be second best” isthe slogan.
体育运动在美国非常受欢迎。这是一次商业、娱乐和逃避现实。它是美国民族性格的一个基本组成部分。职业运动员是民族英雄，是成功和繁荣的象征；他们富有，身体健康，因此，他们被认为是美国梦的化身。美国人的灵感来自于胜利，而不是游戏本身；口号是“永远不要做第二名”。

lt is necessary to mention Americans’ attitude to church and religion, as an integral partof the culture.America in general is quite religious,unlike other western societies. A greatamount of church buildings, representing an astonishing variety of faiths can be seen in thestreets. A typical American family goes to church every Sunday morning, prays before mealsand reads the Bible.Even young people seem to be interested in church affairs. What strikesforeigners most about American protestant churches is that under the same roof people pray,play basketball, have dinner and sing patriotic songs.
有必要提及美国人对教会和宗教的态度，这是美国文化不可分割的一部分，美国与其他西方社会不同，总体上是宗教的。街道上可以看到大量的教堂建筑，代表着令人惊讶的各种信仰。一个典型的美国家庭每个星期天早上都会去教堂，在吃饭之前祈祷，读圣经。甚至连年轻人似乎都对教堂的事情感兴趣。美国新教教堂最让外国人震惊的是，人们在同一个屋檐下祈祷、打篮球、吃晚饭和唱爱国歌曲。

At last,considering American national character,American ethics could be summed upas follows. First of all, it is relativism in everything; the American culture does not accept anyabsolute standards. Secondly, it is naturalism, as a consequence of relativism. For example,the problem of abortion is one of the main ethic questions, discussed nowadays in America.
最后，结合美国的民族特征，可以归纳出美国的伦理思想。首先，它是相对主义的一切，美国文化不接受任何绝对的标准。其次，这是自然主义，是相对主义的结果。例如，堕胎问题是当今美国讨论的主要伦理问题之一。

In conclusion, it is crucial to explain the term “American Dream”, as it is the mostimportant part of the American national character.The most exact definition was given byJ. T.Adams in The Epic of America: it is “the dream of a land in which life should be better,richer, and fuller for every man with opportunities for each according to his abilities andachievement.”The Americans believe that the only way to reach the Dream is hard work andfaith.The symbol of the American Dream is known as the American smile.
总之，解释“美国梦”这个词至关重要，因为它是美国国民性格中最重要的部分。“美国史诗”(Epic Of America)中J·T·亚当斯(J.T.Adams)给出了最准确的定义：“每个人的生活都应该更美好、更丰富、更充实，每个人都可以根据自己的能力和成就获得机会。”美国人认为，实现梦想的唯一途径是努力工作和信仰。美国梦的象征就是美国人的微笑。

To conclude, though hard to determine the national character in such a multinationalsociety as the US, it is vital to state that because it contributes greatly to the American culture.
总之，在美国这样一个多民族的社会里，虽然很难确定国民的性格，但必须说明这一点，因为它对美国文化有很大的贡献。

第三章节：

Section 2 Dress Codes in the United Kingdom

第二节英国的着装规范
Special occasions in Britain often require a multitude of different dress codes. For privateevents such as parties, balls etc., the dress code will usually be stated on the invitation. Dresscodes are strictly observed in Britain — failure to comply would be considered rude or, atworse, you would be refused entry to the event.
在英国，特殊的场合往往需要各种不同的着装规范。对于私人活动，如聚会、舞会等，通常会在邀请函上注明着装规定。英国严格遵守着装标准–如果不遵守规定，就会被认为是粗鲁的，更糟糕的是，你将被拒之门外。

Formal dress code
正式着装规范

Formal dress code is common in many settings, from weddings and business meetingsto parties and cultural events. Formal dress code has been prevalent in society for manyyears, and most people are expected to adhere to this rule somewhat regularly in their lives,depending on their job and recreational activities. While certain events are more formal thanothers,general rules apply to all situations.
正式着装规范在很多场合都很常见，从婚礼、商务会议到派对和文化活动。正式着装规定多年来一直在社会上盛行，人们期望大多数人在生活中一定程度上遵守这一规则，这取决于他们的工作和娱乐活动。虽然某些事件比其他事件更正式，但一般规则适用于所有情况。

For men
对男人来说

The expectations for men commonly associated with a formal dress code include ties,whether regular or bow, as well as a collared shirt, jacket, slacks, and formal shoes.Optionalitems include cuff links,vests,cummerbunds, and watches. The most important thing formales dressing formally is to match the colors of your different outfit elements and make surethey fit appropriately.
男性对正式着装的期望值通常包括领带，无论是正装还是蝴蝶结，以及领口衬衫、夹克、宽松裤和正式鞋。选择项目包括袖扣、背心、积木束和手表。最重要的是，正式的形式着装是匹配你不同的服装元素的颜色，并确保它们适合。

For women
为妇女

In regard to formal dress,most women traditionally wear dresses and skirts.However,some women prefer to wear slacks and a blouse. It is important that a woman choose an outfitthat is formal enough for the requirements of the event, but not overly formal, as they maystand out and look absurd. This is often more difficult for a woman to achieve than a man,since men often wear similar items to a variety of social events.
在正式服装方面，大多数妇女传统上穿连衣裙和连衣裙，但有些妇女更喜欢穿宽松裤和衬衫。重要的是，女性应该选择一件适合活动需要的正式服装，但不要过于正式，因为她们可能会脱颖而出，看起来很荒谬。对于一个女人来说，这往往比一个男人更难做到，因为男人经常穿着与各种社交活动相似的衣服。
Those who don’t enjoy formal dress codes will often find that embracing their creativityand finding unique ways to celebrate their personality in formal wear make it more bearable.This could be as simple as wearing a unique tie or cuff links.
那些不喜欢正式着装规范的人往往会发现，拥抱自己的创意，在正式着装中寻找独特的方式来庆祝自己的个性，会让人更容易忍受，这可能就像戴一条独特的领带或袖扣一样简单。

Smart casual dress code
智能休闲服装代码

Smart casual dressing is also known as business casual and is usually the preferred dresscode for most professional settings like an office, symposiums, academia, church, and someschool activities. The function of smart casual dress is to make the person look well puttogether and professional, but in a slightly more relaxed environment.
智能休闲服装也被称为商务休闲，通常是办公室、专题讨论会、学术界、教会和一些学校活动等大多数专业场合的首选着装规范。智能休闲服装的功能是使人看起来很合身和专业，但在一个稍微宽松的环境。

In Summary
摘要

The thing to remember about business or smart casual is that it should be modest andneat in appearance, but comfortable.And remember, this dress style does not allow for tennisshoes or jeans.
对于商务或智能休闲来说，要记住的是，它的外表应该谦逊整洁，但要舒适。而且要记住，这种着装风格不允许穿紧身鞋或牛仔裤。

Section 1 Greeting Customs in the United States

第一节问候美国海关

Paragraph l
第l段

Americans often greet total strangers,particularly in small towns and communities.This may vary from a formal “good morning” to a more casual “Hi!”; it’s considered polite torespond likewise.On parting, it’s customary to say”Have a nice day”(don’t, however, say it tothe bereaved at a funeral), although this habit is reportedly dying out as Americans becomeweary of ritual insincerity.Americans often reply “You’re Welcome”or something similarwhen somebody thanks them, and they may think you’re impolite if you don’t do likewise. Ifsomeone asks”How are you?”, it’s usual to reply “Fine thanks”(even if you feel dreadful).
美国人经常和陌生人打招呼，特别是在小城镇和社区。这可能会有所不同，从正式的“早上好”到更随意的“嗨！”；做出类似的回应被认为是礼貌的。临别时，习惯上会说“祝你一天愉快”(不过，不要在葬礼上对丧亲说这句话)，尽管据报道，随着美国人对仪式的不真诚感到厌倦，这种习惯正在逐渐消失。美国人经常回答“你欢迎你”，或者在某人感谢他们时，他们会认为你不礼貌，如果你不这样做，他们可能会觉得你不礼貌。如果有人问“你好吗？”，通常会回答“很好的谢谢”(即使你感觉很糟糕)。

Paragraph 2
第2款

When introduced to someone, it’s common to follow the cue of the person performingthe introduction, e.g. if someone is introduced as George, you can usually call him George(although it might not be such a good idea if his last name is Bush and he happens to bethe President, when Mr. President would be more appropriate).Americans generally dislikeformality or any sort of social deference due to age or position, and most quickly say “Pleasecall me Rick (or Rita).” To Americans, informality shows no lack of respect. Because of the riseof women’s liberation in America, women may be introduced with the title“Ms”(pronounced“miz”) and some women object to being addressed as “Miss”or”Mrs.”In some social circles,women are introduced after their husbands, e.g. Mrs Chuck Whizzkid, in which case youshouldn’t address her as Chuck! Some American women retain their maiden (family) namesafter marriage. Many American first names can be confusing and it’s often difficult to knowwhether a name refers to a man or a woman.
当被介绍给某个人时，很常见的做法是遵循做介绍的人的暗示，例如，如果有人被介绍为乔治，你通常可以叫他乔治(尽管如果他的姓是布什，而他碰巧是总统，而总统先生会更合适)。美国人通常会因为年龄或职位而不喜欢礼节或任何一种社会尊重，并且很快就会说：“请让我瑞克(或丽塔)”。对美国人来说，非正式行为并不缺乏尊重。由于美国妇女解放运动的兴起，女性可能会被介绍为“MS”(发音为“Miz”)，而有些女性反对在某些社会圈子中被称呼为“小姐”或“夫人”，在某些社会圈子里，女性被介绍给丈夫之后，比如查克·惠兹基德夫人，在这种情况下，你不应该称呼她为查克！一些美国妇女婚后保留她们的娘家姓(家庭)。许多美国人的名字可能会让人困惑，而且往往很难知道一个名字是指男人还是女人。

Paragraph 3
第3段

After you’ve been introduced to someone, you usually say something like,“Pleased tomeet you” or”My pleasure” and shake hands with a firm grip(although more common amongmen). When saying goodbye, it isn’t customary to shake hands again, although some peopledo.Among friends, it’s common for men to kiss ladies on one or both cheeks. Men don’tusually kiss or embrace each other, although this depends on their nationality or ethnic origin(or sexual proclivity).
当你被介绍给某个人之后，你通常会说“高兴你”或“我的快乐”之类的话，然后紧紧握住你的手(虽然在男人中更常见)。在说再见的时候，虽然有些人会握手，但这并不是习惯。作为朋友，男人亲吻女人的一面或双颊是很常见的。男人不会互相亲吻或拥抱，尽管这取决于他们的国籍或民族血统(或性倾向)。

Paragraph 4
第4段

lf you’re invited to dinner, it’s customary to take along a small present, e.g. flowers, a plant,chocolates or a bottle of wine (but nothing extravagant or ostentatious). Flowers can be tricky,as to some people carnations mean bad luck, chrysanthemums are for cemeteries and rosessignify love. Maybe you should stick to plastic, silk or dried flowers (or a nice bunch of weeds).wine can also be a problem, particularly if you bring a bottle of ltalian plonk and your hostsare wine connoisseurs or members of a religious group that considers alcohol consumptiona sin. If you stay with someone as a guest for a few days, it’s customary to give your host orhostess a small gift when you leave.
如果你被邀请参加晚宴，你通常会带上一件小礼物，比如鲜花、植物、巧克力或一瓶葡萄酒(但不是奢侈或炫耀的)。鲜花可能很棘手，因为对一些人来说，康乃馨意味着厄运，菊花是为了墓地，玫瑰象征着爱。也许你应该选择塑料、丝绸或干花(或者一束漂亮的野草)。葡萄酒也可能是个问题，尤其是如果你带了一瓶意大利酒，而你的主人是葡萄酒鉴赏家，或者是一个认为饮酒是罪过的宗教团体的成员。如果你以客人的身份和某人在一起几天，那么在你离开时，通常会给你的女主人一份小礼物。

Section 2 Dress Codes in the United States

第二节美国的着装规范

Although many foreigners have the impression that Americans are relaxed and casualin their dress, they often have strict dress codes. Many offices have introduced a “dress-down”day on one day a week (usually Friday), when employees may wear casual attire(although jeans may still be off limits). When going anywhere that could be remotely formal(or informal), it’s wise to ask in advance what you’re expected to wear.Usually when dress isformal, such as evening dress or dinner jacket, this is stated in the invitation (e.g.“black tie”),and you won’t be admitted if you turn up in the wrong attire.On the other hand, at someinformal gatherings you may feel out of place if you aren’t wearing jeans and aT-shirt. If you’reinvited to a wedding, enquire about dress (unless you want to stick out like a sore thumb).Black or dark dress is almost always worn at funerals.
虽然许多外国人给人的印象是美国人很放松，穿着很随意，但他们通常都有严格的着装规定。许多办公室都在每周一天(通常是周五)设立了“便装”日，员工可以穿休闲服装(尽管牛仔裤可能仍然禁止穿)。当你去任何可能有点正式(或非正式)的地方时，事先问一问你该穿什么是明智的。通常情况下，当礼服是正式的，比如晚礼服或晚礼服时，邀请函(如“黑色领带”)中会注明这一点，如果你穿错了衣服，你就不会被接纳。另一方面，在一些非正式聚会上，如果你不穿牛仔裤和衬衫，你可能会觉得不合适。如果你再次被邀请参加婚礼，那就去打听一下礼服(除非你想突出得像个大拇指一样)，黑色或黑色的裙子几乎总是在葬礼上穿的。

Dress code for men
男士着装守则

Information Technology companies have a very casual dress code. Jeans,T-shirts, trousers,khakis, and cotton shirts are acceptable even on weekdays. In other industries, Friday is a dayto dress down, and even Bermudas and shorts are allowed. Socks should be worn at all thetimes in the workplace.
信息技术公司有一个非常随意的着装规范。牛仔裤、T恤、裤子、卡其布和棉质衬衫即使在工作日也是可以接受的。在其他行业，星期五是穿衣服的日子，甚至狗牙根和短裤也是允许的。在工作场所，任何时候都应该穿袜子。

Though your clothes need not be expensive or fashionably cut, they must be clean andwell ironed. Neatness is very important. Take care of your hair, teeth and personal hygiene.
虽然你的衣服不需要昂贵或时髦的裁剪，但它们必须是干净的和熨烫的。整洁很重要。注意你的头发，牙齿和个人卫生。
Carry deodorant and mouth freshener with you; you will find that some people even brushtheir teeth in the office after lunch.
随身携带除臭剂和口腔清新剂，你会发现有些人午饭后甚至在办公室刷牙。

Formal wear
正式磨损

lf you are on a business visit (a meeting or finalizing a deal), suit is the most appropriateand preferred business formal. A suit with a light color collared shirt, a matching necktie,and a formal leather shoe is what makes a perfect business formal dress. Suits of dark colorlike black, navy blue, grey or brown are most common, and are conventionally considered asperfect business formals.
如果你是在商务访问(会议或最后敲定交易)，西装是最合适和首选的商务正式。搭配浅色领口衬衫、搭配领带和正式皮鞋的西装才是完美的商务礼服。黑色、深蓝色、灰色或棕色的套装是最常见的，通常被认为是完美的商务形式。

Tips
小贴士

Wear belts that match your outfits.
系上与你的衣服相配的腰带。

Try to wear nice shoes and belts, and also nice quality shirts.Wear fresh pair of socks and clean shoes.
试着穿漂亮的鞋子和腰带，也穿漂亮的衬衫。穿一双新袜子和一双干净的鞋子。

If you carry lunch to office get a good lunch box.
如果你带着午餐去办公室，就买一个好的午餐盒。

Carry a good office bag to your office. A good leather bag or a laptop bag is mostconvenient.
携带一个好的办公室包到你的办公室。一个好的皮包或一个笔记本电脑包最方便。

Maintain your clothes by regular washing, dry cleaning, laundering, and ironing.
通过定期清洗，干洗，清洗和熨烫来维护你的衣服。

Dress code for women
女性着装规范

Women are also expected to maintain a dress code. If the dress code is casual,thenyou have a wide choice. In IT companies, women wear jeans, casual pants,shirts, T-shirts,blouses, trousers, dresses, shorts, sweater sets,and blazers. You can complete the look with acomplimenting bag and jewelry.
妇女还应遵守着装规定。如果着装规范是随意的，那么你就有了广泛的选择。在IT公司，妇女穿牛仔裤、休闲裤、衬衫、T恤、衬衫、裤子、洋装、短裤、毛衣套装和夹克。您可以完成的外观与紧凑型袋和珠宝。

Conservative athletic running, or walking shoes,sneakers,boots,flats,and leather shoesare fine at work. Women are discouraged to wear flashy shoes or open-toe shoes in office.Insome industries, it is a must to wear closed toe and closed heel shoes. Some business placesrequire women to wear business suits, jackets or trousers. Business suits can be worn with amatching or contrasting blouse. With short skirts, one must wear stockings underneath, alongwith high-heeled sandals.
保守的运动跑步，或步行鞋，运动鞋，靴子，平底鞋和皮鞋在工作中都很好。在办公室里，不鼓励妇女穿华丽的鞋或露趾鞋。在某些行业，必须穿紧身鞋和紧跟鞋。有些商业场所要求妇女穿商务套装、夹克或裤子。商务套装可以与衬衫搭配搭配。穿短裙时，必须在下面穿长筒袜，还必须穿高跟鞋.

Tips
小贴士

Usually women must wear closed high-heeled shoes.Wear limited jewelry.Avoid flashy and chunkcy jewelry.
通常，女性必须穿紧身高跟鞋，佩戴有限的珠宝，避免浮华和块状珠宝。

Choose a handbag or purse to match your outfits. Shades of black and browncompliment almost any color.
选择一个手提包或钱包来搭配你的衣服。黑色和棕色的颜色几乎任何颜色。

Hair should be styled, cut, sharnpooed and conditioned.
头发应该定型、剪、削和调理。

Pay attention to your hands and nails.Remove peeled or chipped nail polish. Makeupshould be minimal.
注意你的手和指甲，去掉去皮的指甲油或去屑指甲油。化妆应该是最少的。

Wear mild perfume. Deodorants are a must, as they help keeping body odor at bay.The key to dress well is to “dress right.”Try not to overdress or under dress — this willmake you feel out of place and awkward. Follow the dress code at your workplace.
Wear mild perfume. Deodorants are a must, as they help keeping body odor at bay.The key to dress well is to “dress right.”Try not to overdress or under dress — this willmake you feel out of place and awkward. Follow the dress code at your workplace.

第四章节：

1.1 Section 1 Map Study：第一节地图研究

二、 PART B：Focus on the UK：聚焦于英国

Section 1 Physical Geography of the United Kingdom第一节联合王国的自然地理

The United Kingdom is a country in northwestern Europe; it lies northwest of France, across a body of water called the English Channel.
英国是欧洲西北部的一个国家；它位于法国西北部，横跨一个叫做英吉利海峡的水域。

Land
土地

The land divides into a highland region and a lowland region. The highlands occur northand west of a line from the Tees River, in northern England, to the Exe River, in the southwest.The lowlands lie to the south and east. 土地分为高地区和低地区。高地位于英格兰北部的Tees河与西南的Exe河之间的一条线的西北。低地位于南部和东部。

All of the highland region and most of the lowland region were glaciated during thelast Ice Age. In the highlands the massive sheets of ice scoured and eroded the land, leavingrounded summits and barren rocky areas. On the lowlands they left extensive deposits of clay.sand, gravel, and other glacial material.
在冰河时代，所有的高原地区和大部分的低地地区都被冰川所覆盖。在高地，巨大的冰层冲刷和侵蚀土地，留下圆形的山峰和贫瘠的岩石地区。在低地上，他们留下了大量的粘土、沙子、砾石和其他冰川物质。

Highland Britain. Highlands are the predominant features of Scotland. Northern Ireland,Wales, and western and northern England. Blocks of ancient hard rock. which rarely rise
高地英国。高地是苏格兰的主要特征。北爱尔兰，威尔士，英格兰西部和北部。一块古老坚硬的岩石。很少上升

as much as 2,000 feet (600 m) above sea level, make up most of the land. In many areas thehighlands reach the sea as rocky cliffs and headlands. Bleak moors and marshy bogs dot much of the land. 海拔高达2000英尺(600米)，占陆地的绝大部分。在许多地区，高地以岩石、悬崖和海角的形式到达大海。荒凉的荒原和沼泽的沼泽地点缀着大地。

The highest and roughest sections are the Grampian Mountains and the NorthwestHighlands of northern Scotland.Ben Nevis, reaching 4,406 feet (1,343 m) in the Grampians,isBritain’s highest peak. 最高和最粗糙的部分是格兰海山脉和苏格兰北部的西北高地。本尼维斯，格莱皮安群岛海拔4406英尺(1343米)，是英国最高的山峰。

Rough terrain also occurs in the Cumbrian Mountains of England and the CambrianMountains of Wales. Other highland areas include the uplands of southern Scotland,the Pennines of north-central England, and the Mourne Mountains of Northern Ireland.Numerous broad valleys cut through the highland region, making the areas of rough landdiscontinuous.
粗糙的地形也发生在英格兰的坎布里亚山脉和威尔士的寒武纪山脉。其他高地地区包括苏格兰南部的高地、英格兰中北部的彭宁和北部爱尔兰的莫恩山脉。许多宽阔的山谷穿过高地地区，使粗糙的土地不连续。

Lowland Britain is largely flat to gently rolling, although there are some uplands and somelong, rather sharply rising escarpments. Low-lying areas include the Midlands (a plain), theLondon basin, and the Vale (valley) of York. The upland areas, variously called hills, downs, andwolds, include the Cotswold and Chiltern hills, the North and South downs, and the wolds ofNorth Yorkshire, Humberside, and Lincoln. Rarely do elevations in these areas reach as muchas 1,000 feet (300 m).
虽然英国有一些高地和索姆隆，但陡峭的陡峭的悬崖，在很大程度上是平坦的。低洼地区包括中部(平原)、伦敦盆地和约克谷(山谷).高地地区，各种称为丘陵，起伏和狼群，包括科茨沃尔德山和奇尔顿山，北部和南部的起伏，以及狼的北约克郡，亨伯赛德和林肯。这些地区的海拔很少达到1,000英尺(300米).西奥西尔沃特.凯斯(RM Oso，mam DLD的1)earlbnl 0 OJ eadond

Many of the coastal areas of lowland Britain are lined with cliffs, sand and pebble beaches,and reclaimed tidal land. At Dover, the North Downs end abruptly in magnificent white chalkcliffs, overlooking the Strait of Dover. 英国低地的许多沿海地区都有悬崖、沙滩和卵石滩，还有填海的滩涂。在多佛，北唐斯在雄伟的白色悬崖峭壁中突然消失，俯瞰多佛海峡。

The entire lowland region has long been the most productive and populous part of Britain.
长期以来，整个低地地区一直是英国最具生产力和人口最多的地区。

Water
水

The coast of Britain is often irregular and deeply indented by numerous bays, sounds,broad estuaries (called firths in Scotland), and long, narrow arms of the sea. Among the largebodies of water jutting into Britain are the firths of Forth, Moray, Lorne, Clyde, and Solway, inScotland; and The Wash, Thames estuary, Bristol Channel, and Morecambe Bay, in England.
英国的海岸通常是不规则的，深深地被众多海湾、声音、宽阔的河口(在苏格兰称为第一湾)和狭长的海臂深深地压进。苏格兰的弗斯、莫雷、洛恩、克莱德和索尔韦等地，以及英国的瓦什、泰晤士河河口、布里斯托尔海峡和莫里坎贝湾，都是伸入英国的大水。

Inland waters cover 1,191 square miles(3,085 km2), or somewhat more than 1 per cent ofthe total area. The Severn, in England and Wales, and the Thames, in England, are the longestrivers; the Severn is 220 miles (355 km) long, the Thames, 210 miles (340 km) long. Mostmajor rivers — such as the Tyne, Tees, Humber, Thames, Severn, and Mersey, in England, andthe Clyde and Forth, in Scotland – owe their importance not to their size but to industry,commerce, and navigation in their estuaries. 内陆水域面积为1 191平方英里(3 085平方公里)，略高于总面积的1%。英格兰和威尔士的塞文河和英格兰的泰晤士河是最长的河流；塞文河长220英里(355公里)，泰晤士河长210英里(340公里)。大多数主要河流–如英格兰的泰恩河、提斯河、亨伯河、泰晤士河、塞文河和默西河，以及苏格兰的克莱德河和福斯河–其重要性并不在于它们的大小，而在于其河口的工业、商业和航行。

Lakes are mainly of glacial origin and lie in the highlands. Scottish lochs (lakes) areparticularly numerous, and many are long, narrow, and exceptionally deep. Among them areLoch Lomond, Loch Ness, and Loch Shin. All English lakes are small. The only significant onesare in the Lake District in the Cumbrian Mountains. The country’s largest lake is Lough Neagh,in Northern Ireland.
湖泊以冰川成因为主，分布于高原。苏格兰的湖(湖)特别多，许多是长的、窄的和特别深的。其中包括洛蒙德湖、尼斯湖和新湖。英国所有的湖泊都很小。唯一重要的是在坎布里亚山脉的湖区。该国最大的湖是北爱尔兰的Neagh湖。

Climate
气候

Britain lies at about the same latitude as the southern half of mainland Canada,yet its
英国位于加拿大大陆的南半球，但其纬度却与加拿大大陆的南半球大致相同。
he dominatng latw.vLually al|
他统治着大众。

climate is exceptionally mild. The influence of the ocean s ue avng aLOr. VIrtual,.year, westerly and southwesterly winas brng ue lowlinmr it in cmmer DrizzlooAlantic
气候异常温和。海洋的影响。虚、.年、西南风和西南风Winas在cmmer DrizzlooAlantic中呈现低线性

Current inland, warming the land in winer au cuonio tho woeathor are alenohosJl lghtshowers, much cloudiness and fog, and frequent cangotninane .reac tomnoratitaacleTiStic,
目前内陆地区暖洋洋的土地都是阵雨，多云多雾，常年风吹草动。

a. Throughout most of Britain, except in the notntau aad Eo etnploadtes aVerageabout 38Fto43F(3 ℃to 6C) during the coldest monul (Jauty uaaoothun y) alu 30 F t0 63 R A.在英国大部分地区，除Non头AADEnploadtes aVerage38Fto43F(3℃至6C)外，在最冷的Monul(Jauty Uaaoothun Y)Alu 30 F t0 63 R

(14°Cto 17 °C)during the warmest months (Juy anu rugusy.hnodEin peTSulaofEngland has the mildest winter weather, temperatures aveiagg suouay awove tnose of
(14°Cto 17°C)在最温暖的月份(Juy ANU rugusy.hnodEin peTSulaofEngland)冬季天气最温和，气温平均为

the rest of the nation.
全国其他地方。

The highest summer and lowest winter temperatures are norany reCorded insoutheastern England, which lies in the direct path of occasional not ana cola air masses fromthe continent. Exceptionally hot or cold weather, however, is rare. Ine least varlation in climate
夏季最高和冬季最低的温度是记录在英格兰东南部的东北地区，这是一个直接的路径，偶尔不是来自欧洲大陆的Ana Cola气团。然而，异常炎热或寒冷的天气是罕见的。气候变化最小

occurs along Scotland’s north and northwest coast.
发生在苏格兰的北海岸和西北海岸。

bAnnual precipitation, which varies with topography and exposure to the Atlantic, rangesfrom as much as 200 inches (5,080 mm) in the more mountainous areas to as little as 18 inchesto 20 inches (460 mm to 510 mm) in the extreme southeast. Most of the lowland areas receive25 inches to 40 inches (640 mm to 1,020 mm) a year. Very little of the precipitation falls as snowexcept in the more mountainous areas.
B年降水量随地形和大西洋的暴露而变化，从较多山区的200英寸(5080毫米)到最东南的18英寸到20英寸(460毫米至510毫米)不等。大多数低地地区每年获得25英寸至40英寸(640毫米至1 020毫米)。很少有降水像雪一样降下，只有在较多的山区。

Section 2 England and Wales第2节英格兰和威尔士

The United Kingdom is arguably Europes most imnuenuan touuy inaece to theRoman Empire, and 15th and early 16th century spain, tne Dlus aIpae ws Lie Worlds firstsuperpower. It was the significant factor and strongest ingreaent n he veupent of manyEnglish speaking countries.
可以说，英国是欧洲对罗马帝国最含沙射影的地方，而15世纪和16世纪初的西班牙则是世界上第一个超级大国。它是许多英语国家的重要因素，也是最强烈的因素。

Now the United Kingdom remains a consequential force; 1ts tne Hu lanest economy inthe world and the second largest in Europe.
如今，英国仍然是一支重要的力量；1中国是世界上最具活力的经济体，也是欧洲第二大经济体。

The genesis of the United Kingdom began in early England. It tOOk centures or invasionsand wars, heroes and villains, kings and queens, and swallowed prae by al concerned beforeits many parts united as one. 英国的起源始于英国早期。它花了几个世纪或入侵-战争，英雄和恶棍，国王和王后，并吞服了普拉伊之前，所有的关切，它的许多部分团结在一起。

England
英国
This landmass was attached to mainland Europe for eons, then the last lce Age meltedaway, changing everything; new bodies of water formed including the English Channel andIrish Sea,Britain and Ireland were now islands and Stone Age settlers came ashore. 这块陆地与欧洲大陆相连了千万年，然后最后一个冰河时代融化了，改变了一切；新形成的水体，包括英吉利海峡和爱尔兰海，英国和爱尔兰现在是岛屿，石器时代的定居者上岸。
The Roman Legions crossed the dangerous English Channel in 43 AD. They eventuallynamed this wild new province, Britannia. For some 350 years they controlled and influencedit, until the collapse of the Empire in 410AD. 罗马军团在公元43年越过了危险的英吉利海峡。他们最终把这个狂野的新省份命名为布里安尼亚。他们控制和影响了大约350年，直到公元410年帝国的崩溃。
Britannia was now unprotected, and for the next 300 years invaders came from alldirections. The Anglo-Saxons from Germany proved the dominant group, and a series of smallkingdoms developed. One faction was called Engle, and from that name came“England.” 不列颠人现在没有受到保护，在接下来的300年里，侵略者来自四面八方。来自德国的盎格鲁-撒克逊人被证明是占主导地位的群体，形成了一系列的小王国。有一个派别叫恩格尔，从这个名字就产生了“英格兰”。
Viking raids, though very persistent, were continually squashed. Then in 1066 theNormans sailed in from France. William of Normandy was victorious at the Battle of Hastingsover Harold, the last Anglo-Saxon king. He was crowned William the Conqueror at Westminsterin London.
海盗的袭击，虽然非常持续，但不断被压制。1066年，诺曼人从法国启航，诺曼底的威廉在黑斯廷堡哈罗德战役中获胜，哈罗德是最后一位盎格鲁-撒克逊国王。他在伦敦的威斯敏斯特被加冕为征服者威廉。

During the Middle Ages that followed, the Normans built hilltop castles and repeatedlytried to control Scotland and Wales, with little success. They introduced feudalism, wherethe king shares power with local nobles, who in turn allow common people (now the Anglo-Saxons) to farm their land.
在随后的中世纪，诺曼人建造了山顶城堡，并一再试图控制苏格兰和威尔士，但收效甚微。他们引入了封建主义，国王与当地贵族分享权力，而当地贵族又允许平民(现在的盎格鲁-撒克逊人)耕种他们的土地。

For the next few centuries Western Europe and England were in turmoil; an out-of-controlplague Black Death killed millions, competing royal families waged war, and the HundredYears’ War, pitting English kings against the French throne, was debilitating. 在接下来的几个世纪里，西欧和英国陷入了混乱；一场失控的黑死病夺去了数百万人的生命，相互竞争的皇室家族发动了战争，亨德雷德·耶尔斯的战争使英国国王与法国王位对立，这场战争令人衰弱。

The Tudor Renaissance followed a century of peace and stability,except in the manymarriages of Henry VII. To solve his divorce problems he split with the Catholic Churcb,formed the Church of England, and declared himself its leader. 除了亨利七世的许多婚姻之外，都铎文艺复兴延续了一个世纪的和平与稳定。为了解决他的离婚问题，他与天主教教会分裂，成立了英格兰教会，并宣布自己为其领袖。

Henry VIlI’s love of ships inspired the beginnings of English sea power In 1588.the English
1588年，亨利·维利对船的热爱激发了英国海权的诞生。
navy engaged and destroyed the mighty Spanish fleet. This overwhelming victory catapiultedEngland into naval supremacy for the next 3 centuries.dguoid rnit bnt soit lo rotnubgsc1eorCivil war raged in the mid-17th century as monarchy and Parliament supporters struggledfor power. It led to the execution of King Charles I.This created the Commonwealth of Englandled by Oliver Cromwell. His dictator-like tendencies and 1649 punitive expedition into lrelandbrought Parliament to its senses, and they finally restored a Monarchy, albeit one with nowlimited powers.
海军对抗并摧毁了强大的西班牙舰队。这场压倒性的胜利使英国在接下来的三个世纪中成为海军霸主。17世纪中叶，随着君主制和议会支持者争夺权力的斗争，英国内战愈演愈烈。这导致查尔斯一世国王被处决，这就建立了由奥利弗·克伦威尔领导的英国联邦。他的独裁者般的倾向和1649年对爱尔兰的惩罚使议会恢复了理智，最终恢复了君主制，尽管现在权力有限。

with the Acts of Union in 1707, England and Scotland merged and became the Kingdomof Great Britain. In the early 18th century, Great Britain quite successfully expanded itsinfluence around the globe, from colonies in America and the Caribbean islands to significantpower bases in Australia, Canada and India.
随着1707年的联合法案，英格兰和苏格兰合并成为大不列颠的王国。18世纪初，大不列颠相当成功地扩大了它在全球的影响力，从美洲和加勒比群岛的殖民地到澳大利亚、加拿大和印度的重要权力基地。

By the time the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland formed in 1800,Americahad won its War of Independence, but that regional loss of power was offset by Great Britain’sversion of the Industrial Revolution and the massive growth that would soon follow.
到1800年大不列颠及爱尔兰联合王国成立时，美国赢得了独立战争，但该地区失去的权力被英国版本的工业革命和即将到来的大规模增长所抵消。

Queen Victoria assumed the throne in 1837.During her productive and popular reign,Britain’s economy exploded with new growth; universal education was introduced, laborunions formed and Britain was transformed into the world’s greatest power. 维多利亚女王于1837年登基，在她富有成效和广受欢迎的统治下，英国经济出现了新的增长；实行了普及教育，成立了工会，使英国成为世界上最大的强国。

Wales
威尔斯

Celtic peoples from Europe first arrived in Britain around 500 BC. Then facing the Romaninvasion, Wales was mostly subdued by 79 AD and partially controlled, despite some ratherstrong resistance. 公元前500年左右，欧洲的凯尔特人第一次来到英国。面对罗马人的入侵，威尔士大部分被公元79年所征服，并被部分控制，尽管有一些异乎寻常的抵抗。

The English Saxons applied pressures along its then disputed border with Wales, and in770, the Saxon King, Offa of Mercia, built a dyke between England and Wales. In some placesit was 65 feet (20 m) wide. The Saxons called the land on the other side of the dyke “Wales.”“People in “Wales”referred to their land as “Cymru,” and their individual cultures blendedtogether, both economically and linguistically. 英国撒克逊人在当时与威尔士有争议的边界上施加压力，而在770年，撒克逊国王，默西亚的奥法，在英格兰和威尔士之间建造了一座堤坝。在一些地方有65英尺(20米)宽。撒克逊人称堤坝另一边的土地为“威尔士”。“威尔士人”称他们的土地为“Cymru”，他们各自的文化在经济和语言上混为一谈。

The Viking invasions in the 9th and 10th centuries actually bonded the Welsh together,making them stronger. The Norman conquest of England in 1066 had little initial affect onWales, but after William the Conqueror established power bases along the welsh border, theNormans easily controlled the south and began to covet the north.
维京人在9世纪和10世纪的入侵实际上把威尔士人联系在一起，使他们更加强大。1066年诺曼征服英格兰对威尔士几乎没有什么影响，但在征服者威廉在威尔士边境建立权力基地之后，诺曼人轻易地控制了南方，并开始觊觎北方。

In the north the story was much different as powerful welsh princes successfully heldthe persistent Normans at bay. Llywelyn the Last was named Prince of Wales by Henry III, butthis victory for Wales would eventually end. The English King, Edward I, began his conquestof Wales in 1272; Llywelyn was killed in battle and the 200 years of fights ended with Edward Inaming his own son Prince of Wales, and that remains a tradition to this day. 在北方，故事大不相同，因为强大的威尔士王子成功地将顽固的诺曼人困在了海湾。莱韦林最后一次被亨利三世命名为威尔士王子，但是威尔士的这场胜利最终将结束。英国国王爱德华一世于1272年开始征服威尔士；莱韦林在战斗中阵亡，200年的战斗与他自己的儿子威尔士王子爱德华英明结束，至今仍是一个传统。

In 1536, The Act of Union brought England and Wales together, united into one. Englandgrew rapidly, but Wales languished in the background, remaining isolated with littlepopulation growth and a very weak economy. 1536年，“联合法案”将英格兰和威尔士合并为一个整体。英格兰迅速发展，但威尔士却在这一背景下萎靡不振，人口增长甚微，经济非常疲弱，仍然与世隔绝。

In the mid 1700s the Industrial Kevolanthoarding back to life; the railrnanld theproduction of iron and tin brought wales spm.nities grew into larger towna ItTive,
17世纪中期，Kevanthoarding工业公司重新焕发生机；铁路生产的铁和锡使威尔士的纺锤体成长为更大的城镇，

population surged and small southeasleno. afll tn uoitupase adtot haloanogstovernight.iolsawnommrod adlt bsvssso aid f .i asirto8uA tO wOUb9308 tiol bal .
人口激增，南部人口稀少。最后一步加到WOUb 9308 tiol。

hrIn 1926, Plaid Cymru, the Welsh Natioanaleh ocngmv The legal acoorto .ouriSmrevenues and high tech jobs have helpea uhe .lnnd DlaidCvmruucontinphace Of theWelsh language, Cardiff declared the officlal caplta, iiarotondyug Seat, 1926年Hrin，Plaid Cymru，威尔士Natioanaleh ocngmmv法律委员会.ouriSmcome和高科技工作有Helpea UHE.inandDlaidCvmruuracphace of the Welsh Language，Cardiff宣布担任公职，iiarotondyug，

Section 3 Scotland

第3节苏格兰
The last Ice Age melted away some 10,000 years ago and Stone Age people began to arrivein Scotland from England, Ireland and beyond.
最后一个冰河时代在大约一万年前融化了，石器时代的人们开始从英格兰、爱尔兰和更远的地方到达苏格兰。

They built organized settlements in the Orkney and Shetland Islands,the NorthernHighlands and a few of the western isles. The“Picts”from continental Europe as well as the“Beakers” proved influential inhabitants.
他们在奥克尼群岛、设得兰群岛、北部高地和几个西部岛屿建立了有组织的定居点。来自欧洲大陆的“皮克特”和“烧杯”被证明是有影响力的居民。

The Romans began their invasion of the British Isles in 43 AD. They called this wild landBritannia, and subsequently controlled it until their own empire began to collapse in 410 AD.During their reign the Romans occupied what is now England and Wales, but Scotland, thencalled Caledonia, was a different story.
罗马人于公元43年开始入侵不列颠群岛。他们称这片荒原为不列颠，后来控制了它，直到他们自己的帝国在公元410年开始崩溃。在他们统治期间，罗马人占领了现在的英格兰和威尔士，但苏格兰，在那里的新喀里多尼亚，则是另一回事。

When the Roman legions came north in 81 AD, they met fierce resistance from the “Picts”and other local tribes. So strong was that resistance that Hadrian’s Wall and two other wallswere built to hem the barbarians in.
当罗马军团在公元81年北上时，他们遇到了来自“皮克特”和其他地方部落的激烈抵抗。这种抵抗是如此强烈，以至于哈德良的墙和另外两堵墙被建造起来，用来遮住野蛮人的身体。

Some 80 years later the legions retreated south as Rome concluded this rugged land andits strong-minded people did not justify the high costs of occupation.
大约80年后，当罗马总结出这片崎岖的土地时，军团撤退到南方，其坚韧的人民并没有证明占领的高昂代价是正当的。

In the 6th century,Gaelic speaking people, the Scots, arrived in the Highlands fromIreland.Localized wars with the”Picts” continued for three hundred years，with thedetermined “Scots” prevailing.
公元6世纪，讲盖尔语的苏格兰人从爱尔兰来到高地，与“皮克特人”的局部战争持续了三百年，当时坚决的“苏格兰人”盛行。

In the southern lowlands, a form of Anglo-Saxon feudalism gradually took hold, whereroyalty shares power with nobility, who in turn allowed common people (serfs) to farm theirland. The Lowlander tribal groups fought it, but soon capitulated, thus making way for theirpowerful family clans to form.
在南部低地，一种盎格鲁-撒克逊式的封建主义逐渐形成，贵族与贵族分享权力，而贵族又允许平民(农奴)耕种他们的土地。低地部落与此作了斗争，但很快就投降了，从而为他们强大的家族家族让路。

England’s Norman Kings long considered Scotland their land, and Scotland firmlyrebelled.Begrudgingly the Scots eventually recognized that sovereignty. In the Highlandsof the far north however, the pot was simmering, and in 1297, the long awaited drive forindependence began.
英格兰的诺曼国王长期认为苏格兰是他们的土地，而苏格兰则坚决反抗，而苏格兰人最终承认了这一主权。然而，在遥远北方的高地，火锅正在酝酿，1297年，期待已久的独立运动开始了。
William Wallace led the growing resistance to English occupation of Scotland.After localraids and skirmishes，Wallace and his forces attacked the English at the Battle of StirlingBridge, killing thousands.After continually punishing the English on many fronts,Wallace, abrave and patriotic man to the end, was captured and executed by the English in London in1305.
威廉·华莱士领导了对英格兰占领苏格兰的抵抗运动。在地方袭击和小规模冲突之后，华莱士和他的部队在斯特林大桥战役中袭击了英国人，造成数千人死亡。华莱士在许多战线上不断地对英国人进行惩罚之后，华莱士最终被英国人俘虏并处决。

Robert the Bruce, with the forces of William Wallace now behind him, became the realpower in Scotland’s long term fight for independence.He was crowned King of Scotland andbattled the English until he and his forces finally defeated them in 1314.Even in that localizeddefeat, England still ruled most of Britannia, but victorious Scotland would not accept thatconcept.
罗伯特·布鲁斯在威廉·华莱士的支持下，成为苏格兰长期独立斗争中的实权。他被加冕为苏格兰国王，直到1314年他和他的军队最终打败了他们。即使在那场局部化的失败中，英格兰仍然统治着大部分不列颠尼亚，但胜利的苏格兰不会接受这个概念。

The 1707 Act of Union between England and Scotland that created the Kingdom of GreatBritain was the byproduct of several factors,including the marriage of James IV of Scotlandinto the English Tudors; the martyrdom of Mary， Queen of Scots; James VI of Scotlandsucceeding to the throne of England, an on-going civil war over English control of the land andthe contentious effort to reform Catholics during the Protestant Reformation.
1707年英格兰和苏格兰联合法案建立了英国王国，它是几个因素的副产品，包括苏格兰的詹姆斯四世与英国都铎教徒的婚姻；苏格兰女王玛丽的殉教；苏格兰王位的詹姆斯六世；英格兰控制这块土地的持续内战，以及在新教改革期间改革天主教徒的有争议的努力。

For the next half-century the Jacobite movement made several attempts to restoreCatholic Stuarts to the throne. That ended with the defeat of Bonnie Prince Charlie in 1746.The Highlanders plan was finally crushed and they were forced to abandon their tartan kilts.
在接下来的半个世纪里，雅可比运动曾多次试图让天主教斯图亚特重新登上王位。1746年，邦妮王子查理(BonniePrince Charlie)落败，最终，高地人的计划最终被粉碎，他们被迫放弃了他们的格子短裙。

During the Industrial Revolution of 18th and 19th centuries,Scotland became a regionalcommercial power. Landowners forced tenants off the land and established large cattle andsheep farms. This was called the Highland Clearance.Soon coal mining, steel production andship building continued the economic transformation.
在18世纪和19世纪的工业革命期间，苏格兰成为一个地区性的商业强国。地主强迫房客离开土地，建立了大型的牛羊农场。这被称为高地清算，因此煤炭开采、钢铁生产和造船继续进行着经济转型。

The worldwide depression of the 1930s jolted the country, and by the end of World War Il,Scotland’s industries were in decline; unemployment reached record levels and hardship wasthe norm.
20世纪30年代的世界大萧条震动了这个国家，到第一次世界大战结束时，苏格兰的工业正在衰退，失业率达到创纪录的水平，困难成为常态。

Resiliency, no stranger to Scotland, brought positive change when the discovery of NorthSea oil sparked a new national attitude. A litany of financial firms, electronic manufacturing.businesses and tourism helped perpetuate that economic resurgence.
当发现北海石油引发了一种新的民族态度时，苏格兰人并不陌生的弹性带来了积极的变化。一连串的金融公司、电子制造、商业和旅游业帮助经济复苏。

Though a distinctly separate country with strong levels of autonomy, the Scottishgovernment is not yet a completely sovereign entity. However, the desired total independencefrom Britain has remained a hot-button issue across the land.
虽然苏格兰政府是一个明显独立、高度自治的国家，但它还不是一个完全的主权实体。然而，英国所期望的完全独立仍然是全国范围内的一个热点问题。

Scotland is certainly one of the most enchanting places on our planet, and a magnet forvisitors in both ancient times as well as the 21st century.
苏格兰无疑是我们星球上最迷人的地方之一，在古代和21世纪都是吸引游客的地方。

Section 4 Northern Ireland第4节北爱尔兰

Northern Ireland is today a constitutionally distinct region of the United Kingdom. Itsstory is sad, yet promising, confusing, and understandable.
今天，北爱尔兰是联合王国宪法上独特的一个地区。它的故事是可悲的，但充满希望，令人困惑，也可以理解。

The last Ice Age melted away some 10,000 years ago. The dramatic result created theEnglish Channel, Irish Sea and hundreds of rivers and lakes.Great Britain and lreland, longattached to the European continent, were now islands, and cultural history was about tochange.
最后一个冰河时代在大约一万年前融化了。这一戏剧性的结果造就了英吉利海峡、爱尔兰海和数百条河流和湖泊。长期以来，英国和爱尔兰一直依附于欧洲大陆，现在已成为岛屿，文化历史即将发生变化。

The Celtic people occupied great stretches of land across central Europe by 500 BC.Theyfirst arrived in lreland around 300 BC, subsequently controlling and influencing this land thatthe powerful Roman culture never reached.
公元前500年，凯尔特人占领了整个中欧的大片土地，他们首先在公元前300年左右到达爱尔兰，随后控制和影响了这片强大的罗马文化从未到达的土地。

The Pope in Rome Celestinus the First sent the first Christian missionaries to lreland inthe 5th century, including St. Patrick.The Catholic faith spread rapidly, and by the turn of thecentury abbeys and monasteries were beacons of hope across Ireland.
罗马教皇西列斯提努斯第一次派第一位基督教传教士在5世纪来到爱尔兰，包括圣帕特里克。天主教信仰迅速传播，到了修道院的时候，修道院和修道院成了整个爱尔兰希望的灯塔。

This somewhat peaceful Celtic world was first invaded by the Vikings in the late 8thcentury. Their overpowering raids of monasteries and villages continued through the 10thcentury, and they eventually built permanent power base settlements at Cork, Dublin andWaterford.
这个略显平静的凯尔特人世界在8世纪末第一次被维京人入侵。他们对修道院和村庄的强大袭击持续了10世纪，他们最终在科克、都柏林和沃特福德建立了永久的权力基地。

Localized fighting over land and property continued for decades,but over time, someCeltic family groups and Vikings reached alliances. That ended when the lrish King Brian Borudefeated the Danish Vikings in 1014.
Localized fighting over land and property continued for decades,but over time, someCeltic family groups and Vikings reached alliances. That ended when the lrish King Brian Borudefeated the Danish Vikings in 1014.

In 1169,aggressive English and Norman forces crossed the Irish Sea; Dublin, a Vikingstronghold, and other cities quickly fell, and the all-powerful Pope in Rome declared that theEnglish King Henry ll was now the “Lord of Ireland.”As you can imagine, that didn’t sit verywell with the locals.
在1169年，咄咄逼人的英国和诺曼势力横越了爱尔兰海；都柏林，一个维京人的据点，以及其他城市迅速沦陷，罗马全能的教皇宣布，英国国王亨利二世现在是“爱尔兰之王”。正如你可以想象的那样，这与当地人的关系不太好。

Centuries of conflicts and localized wars continued, and finally, the embattled lrish chiefswere forced to retreat into the northern province of Ulster, parts of which are now NorthernIreland.By 1607, most, if not all, would flee this land and the English saw an opening.
几个世纪的冲突和局部战争还在继续，最后，四面楚歌的爱尔兰酋长被迫撤退到北部的阿尔斯特省，那里的一部分现在是北爱尔兰。到了1607年，大多数人，如果不是全部，都会逃离这片土地，英国人看到了裂口。

They quickly instigated a policy called “plantation,”where waves of Scottish and EnglishProtestants literally took the available land from the now weakened Catholics,laying thegroundwork for the strongly-held differences and bitterness that remain to this day.
他们很快启动了一项名为“种植园”的政策，苏格兰和英国的浪潮从现在已经衰弱的天主教徒手中夺走了可用的土地，为至今仍存在的强烈分歧和痛苦奠定了基础。

Understandably, the now angry and proud Celts rebelled, and bloody riots soon followed.Then, after the native Irish supported the losing side in England’s Civil War,the worst forIreland was yet to come.
可以理解的是，现在愤怒而自豪的凯尔特人反抗了，血腥的暴乱很快就发生了。然后，在爱尔兰本土的爱尔兰人在英格兰内战中支持失败的一方之后，对爱尔兰来说最糟糕的事情还没有到来。

ln 1649,Oliver Cromwell, England’s“”Protestant”Lord Protector (on the winning side inthat war) led a punitive expedition into Ireland.The massacre was bloody, brutal and most
1649年，奥利弗·克伦威尔(OliverCromwell)，英格兰的“新教徒”保护勋爵(在那场战争中获胜的一方)率领一支惩罚性的探险队进入爱尔兰。屠杀是血腥的，残酷的，也是最严重的。

destructive — and not yet forgotton.
破坏性的-而且还没有放弃。

As the English enforced strict (none of this, none of that) new laws on the Catholics,Protestant powers increased, and lreland and its northern areas grew further apart, primarilyfor economic reasons.
随着英国人对天主教徒实施严格的(没有，没有)新的法律，新教势力增加，爱尔兰和北部地区因经济原因而进一步疏远。

After more than seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle,marked by fierce rebellions andharsh repressions,Ireland and Britain were on paper politically united in 1800 by The Act ofUnion.However, countrywide unrest was still on the front burner.Adding more misery to thatsmoldering fire, the Great Famine of the mid-1800s served up starvation and death, and massemigration followed, especially to the United States.
经过七个多世纪的英爱斗争，以激烈的叛乱和残酷的镇压为标志，1800年，爱尔兰和英国通过“统一法案”在政治上统一了起来，然而，全国的动乱仍然在火上浇油，加上更多的苦难，19世纪中期的大饥荒造成了饥饿和死亡，随后出现了大规模移民，特别是美国。

The Home Rule movement of the late-1800s would be the catalyst for the separation ofNorthern Ireland from lreland, because the southern Catholics desired total independencefrom the British, while northern Protestants feared rule by the Catholic majority.
19世纪末的地方自治运动将成为北爱尔兰与爱尔兰分离的催化剂，因为南方天主教徒希望完全独立于英国，而北方新教徒则害怕天主教多数教徒的统治。

Following the so-called“Easter Rising”in 1916, where patriotic nationalist leadersproclaiming an independent Irish Republic were all shot at Kilmainham Gaol by the British,the Anglo-Irish War began.
在1916年所谓的“复活节崛起”之后，宣布独立的爱尔兰共和国的爱国民族主义领导人都被英国人射杀，盎格鲁-爱尔兰战争开始了。

In 1921 a Treaty was signed giving 26 counties independence as The Irish Free State andleaving 6 counties part of the United Kingdom.The lrish Free State remained part of the BritishCommonwealth until leaving as the Republic of Ireland in 1949.
1921年签署了一项条约，使26个县独立为爱尔兰自由邦，6个县成为联合王国的一部分，爱尔兰自由邦一直是英国联邦的一部分，直到1949年成为爱尔兰共和国。

Northern Ireland remained part of the UK with its own devolved local administration, andthe two parts of lreland went their separate ways peacefully enough until the late 1960s.At thatpoint tensions between Nationalists in Northern lreland seeking to join it to the Republic andUnionists determined to keep it part of the UJK boiled over and for almost the next thirty yearscivil disorder reigned, leading to much destruction of life and property. Eventually, in 1998,ajointly managed Assembly was established and government returned on a power-sharing basisbetween representatives of both communities.
北爱尔兰仍然是英国的一部分，拥有自己的权力下放的地方政府，爱尔兰和爱尔兰的两个地区和平地走着各自的道路，直到上世纪60年代末。这表明北国民族主义者寻求将其并入共和国的民族主义者与决意让它成为UJK一部分的联合主义者之间的紧张关系，在接下来的近30年里，民众混乱统治，造成了生命和财产的严重破坏。最终，在1998年，一个共同管理的议会成立了，政府在两族代表的权力分享基础上回归。

On Monday, March 26,2007, another historic accord was reached in Northern Ireland.Reverend lan Paisley, the Protestant leader, and Gerry Adams of Sinn Fein collectivelyannounced that on May 8.2007, these two hostile groups would form a joint administration,and after years of bloody hostility finally work together. The British government hailed this as amajor breakthrough.
2007年3月26日星期一，北爱尔兰又达成了历史性的协议，新教领袖佩斯利牧师和新芬党的格里·亚当斯集体宣布，8.2007年月，这两个敌对团体将组成一个联合政府，经过多年的血腥敌对，终于共同行动起来。英国政府称赞这是一项重大突破。

A relative calm is now in place in Northern Ireland, and tourism is on the increase.
北爱尔兰现在相对平静，旅游业也在增加。

This is a beautiful land of cool, crisp air, and long-held traditions of family and friends.Dozens and dozens of small towns and villages cover the countryside, and the calming steeplesof Northern lreland’s many churches still point to a promising future.
这是一个凉爽、清新空气的美丽土地，有着悠久的家庭和朋友传统，多森和几十个小城镇和村庄覆盖着乡村，北部爱尔兰许多教堂的平静的尖顶仍然预示着一个光明的未来。

三、 PART C：Focus on the US关注美国

Section 1 The Regions of the United States：第一节美国各地区

Americans often speak of their country as one of several large regions. These regions are cultural units rather than governmental units — formed by history and geography and shaped by the economics, literature and folkways that all the parts of a region share.
美国人经常把他们的国家说成是几个大地区之一。这些地区是文化单位，而不是政府单位——由历史和地理构成，并由一个地区所有部分共享的经济、文学和民俗塑造。

						New England

在17世纪初，英国英格兰的清教徒（Puritan）为逃避宗教压迫到了新英格兰地区。现在新英格兰地区包括美国的缅因州、新罕布什尔州、佛蒙特州、马萨诸塞州（麻省，哈佛和MIT所在的州）、罗得岛州和康涅狄格州（耶鲁在这里），一共六个州。这个“新英格兰地区”对于美国人来说，就跟中国“东三省”感觉差不多。而新英格兰地区的人民会称呼自己New Englander，也就像咱们的“东三省”同学会说“俺们东北人”一样，是对自己的一种地理上的归属感。

New England has played a dominant role in American history. Until 19th century it was the country’s cultural and economic center. The earliest European settlers here were English Protestants who came in search of religious liberty. They gave the region its distinctive political format—town meetings. New England is also important for its cultural contribution. In the first half of the 19th century, “the flowering of New England” created a distinctive American literature. America’s first college, Harvard, was founded at Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1636.The cluster of top-ranking universities and colleges in New England- including Harvard, Yale, Brown, Dartmouth, Amherst, and Wesleyan – is unequaled by any other region. Without, however, large expanses of rich farmland or a mild climate, generations of exasperated farmers declared that the chief product of their land was stones. By 1750, many settlers had turned to other pursuits. In their business dealings, New Englanders gained a reputation for hard work, shrewdness, thrift, and ingenuity.
新英格兰在美国历史上起着主导作用。直到19世纪，它一直是这个国家的文化和经济中心。最早来到这里的欧洲定居者是为了寻求宗教自由的英国新教徒。他们赋予了该地区独特的政治形式——城镇会议。新英格兰的文化贡献也很重要。在19世纪上半叶，“新英格兰的繁盛”创造了一个独特的美国文学。美国的第一所学院——哈佛大学于1636年在马萨诸塞州的剑桥成立。包括哈佛、耶鲁、布朗、达特茅斯、阿默斯特和卫斯理在内的新英格兰地区的顶尖大学和学院群是其他任何地区都无法比拟的。然而，由于没有大片肥沃的农田，也没有温和的气候，一代又一代愤怒的农民宣称，他们土地的主要产品是石头。到1750年，许多殖民者转向了其他的追求。在商业活动中，新英格兰人以强硬、精明、节俭和聪明才智而闻名。

Mid-Atlantic大西洋中部的

If New England provided the brains and dollars for 19th century American expansion, the Mid-Atlantic provided the muscle. The region’s largest states, New York and Pennsylvania, became centers of heavy industry. The Mid-Atlantic region was settled by a wider range of people than New England. Into this area of industry, came millions of Europeans who made it a “melting pot.” As heavy industry spread throughout the region, rivers such as the Hudson and Delaware were transformed into vital shipping lanes. Cities on waterways -New York on the Hudson, Philadelphia on the Delaware, Baltimore on Chesapeake Bay— grew dramatically. But even today, visitors who expect only factories and crowded cities may find in the Mid-Atlantic more wooded hills than factory chimneys, more fields than concrete roads, and more farmhouses than office buildings.
如果说新英格兰为19世纪美国的扩张提供了人才和金钱，那么中大西洋则提供了力量。该地区最大的两个州，纽约州和宾夕法尼亚州，成为重工业中心。中大西洋地区比新英格兰地区居住着更多的人。数以百万计的欧洲人来到这个工业地区，使它成为一个“大熔炉”。随着重工业在该地区的扩散，哈德逊河和特拉华河等河流变成了重要的航运航道。水道上的城市——哈德逊河上的纽约、特拉华河上的费城、切萨皮克湾上的巴尔的摩——发展迅猛。但即使在今天，那些以为只会看到工厂和拥挤城市的游客，在大西洋中部也会看到树木繁茂的山丘而不是工厂的烟囱，田地而不是混凝土道路，农舍而不是办公楼。

The South

The South is perhaps the most distinctive region of the United States region. The American Civil War (1861—1865) devastated the Old South socially and economically. The scars left by the war took decades to heal. The abolition of slavery failed to provide African Americans with political or economic equality; and it took a long, concerted effort to end segregation. The “New South” has evolved into a manufacturing region and high-rise buildings crowd the skylines of such cities as Atlanta and Little Rock. The region however still has many landscapes to delight the human sense of poetry and wonder. The region is blessed with plentiful rainfall and a mild climate. Crops grow easily in its soil and can be grown without frost for at least six months of the year. Owing to its mild weather, the South has become a mecca for retirees from other regions.
南方也许是美国最具特色的地区。美国内战(1861-1865)在社会和经济上摧毁了老南方。战争留下的伤疤花了几十年才愈合。奴隶制的废除未能给非裔美国人提供政治或经济上的平等;为了结束种族隔离，美国付出了长期的共同努力。“新南方”已经发展成为一个制造业地区，像亚特兰大和小石城这样的城市的天际线上高楼林立。然而，该地区仍然有许多景观，以愉悦人类的诗意和奇迹感。这个地区雨量充沛，气候温和。农作物很容易在它的土壤中生长，一年至少有六个月不受霜的影响。由于气候温和，南方已成为其他地区退休人员向往的圣地。

Midwest中西部
The Midwest is known as the nation’s “breadbasket.” The fertile soil of the region makes it possible for farmers to produce abundant harvests of cereal crops such as wheat, oats, and Corn. Corn is the most important of all American crops, as basic to American agriculture as iron is to American industry. On hot, still midsummer nights in the Corn Belt, farmers insist they can hear the corn growing.
Farms are normally located separate from each other, close to the fields, and often beyond the sight of its neighbors. The village or town is principally a place where the farm family travels to buy supplies. to attend church and to go for entertainment or political, social or business meetings. Midwesterners are praised as being open, friendly, and straightforward.
中西部地区被称为美国的“粮仓”。该地区肥沃的土壤使农民有可能生产出大量的谷类作物，如小麦、燕麦和玉米。玉米是美国最重要的农作物，对美国农业就像铁对美国工业一样重要。在玉米带炎热的仲夏之夜，农民们坚称他们能听到玉米生长的声音。
农场通常彼此分开，靠近田地，而且常常在邻居看不见的地方。村庄或城镇主要是农户外出购买生活用品的地方。去教堂做礼拜，参加娱乐活动或政治、社会或商业会议。中西部人被称赞为开放、友好和直率。

The Southwest

The Southwest is drier than the adjoining Midwest in weather. the population is less dense but more ethnically varied than neighboring areas. Outside the cities, the region is a land of open spaces, much of which is desert. The magnificent Grand Canyon is located in this region, as is Monument Valley, which is within the Navajo Reservation, home of the most populous American Indian tribe.
The population in the region is growing rapidly. Since the late 19th century, the immense stretch of desert has been growing smaller as the settlers continued to cultivate the desert. Dams on the Colorado and other rivers and aqueducts have brought water to the once small towns of Phoenix, Arizona, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, allowing them to become metropolises.
西南部的天气比毗邻的中西部干燥。与邻近地区相比，这里的人口密度较低，但种族差异较大。在城市之外，该地区是一片开阔的土地，其中大部分是沙漠。雄伟的大峡谷和纪念碑谷都位于这一地区，它位于人口最多的美国印第安部落纳瓦霍保留地内。
这个地区的人口正在迅速增长。自19世纪晚期以来，随着移民们不断开垦沙漠，这片广袤的沙漠变得越来越小。科罗拉多河和其他河流上的水坝和水渠把水带到曾经的亚利桑那州的凤凰城和新墨西哥州的阿尔伯克基镇，使它们变成了大都市。

The West
The West is a region of scenic beauty on a grand scale. Americans have long regarded the West as the last frontier.
Alaska has a large Innuit population. Hawaii has a large Polynesian population. California, with a history of European settlement longer than most Midwestern states, has now become the primary port of entry for Asian immigrants since 1980s. Los Angeles – and Southern California as a whole – bears the stamp of large Mexican-American population. It is the second largest city in the nation and is best known as the home of the Hollywood film industry. Perhaps because so many Westerners have moved there from other regions to make a new start, Western cities are known for their tolerance and a very strong “live-and-Jet-live” attitude.
西部是一个规模宏大的风景区。美国人长期以来一直把西部视为最后的边疆。
阿拉斯加有大量因纽特人。夏威夷有大量的波利尼西亚人。欧洲人定居加州的历史比大多数中西部州都要长，自上世纪80年代以来，加州已成为亚洲移民的主要入境口岸。洛杉矶——以及整个南加州——有着大量墨西哥裔美国人的印记。它是美国第二大城市，以好莱坞电影产业之乡而闻名。也许是因为很多西方人从其他地区搬到这里开始新的生活，西方城市以他们的宽容和非常强烈的“live-and-Jet-live”态度而闻名。

Section 2 A Brief History of the us第二节美国简史

America’s initial Stone Age inhabitants arrived here by traversing the Bering Strait. During the following centuries, a wide variety of Indian cultures developed and prospered across the land.
美国最初的石器时代居民是穿越白令海峡来到这里的。在接下来的几个世纪里，各种各样的印度文化在这片土地上发展和繁荣。
After Columbus made his initial voyage to this New World, word of its potential riches spread across Europe, and explorers and settlers by the thousands soon stepped ashore along the Atlantic Ocean coastline.
在哥伦布第一次航行到这个新世界后，关于它潜在财富的消息传遍了整个欧洲，成千上万的探险家和定居者很快沿着大西洋海岸上岸。
In 1620, the Pilgrims arrived on the Mayflower, landing in what is modern-day Massachusetts; their settlement named Plymouth survived, and the story of a new nation was subsequently born.
1620年，清教徒们乘“五月花”号抵达今天的马萨诸塞州。他们的殖民地普利茅斯幸存下来，一个新国家的故事随后诞生。
One century later Britain’s upstart colonies broke from England and declared their new. found independence during the Revolutionary War.
一个世纪后，英国的暴发户殖民地脱离英格兰，宣布成立新的殖民地。美国独立战争期间获得独立
The new country of America expanded rapidly, well beyond the reach of the original 13colonies, and inevitable conflicts and wars over lands rightfully claimed by Native Americans was the result. Indigenous Indians (Native Americans) were stripped of most of their lands and moved to reservations; the central plains were purchased from Napoleon (France); Florida was grabbed from Spain, and the entire southwest (including California) was annexed after the Mexican-American War of 1846— 1848.The growing influence and size of the United States of America began to take shape.
新成立的美国迅速扩张，远远超出了最初13个殖民地的管辖范围，其结果是不可避免的冲突和战争，这些冲突和战争都是由印第安人合法宣称的土地引起的。土著印第安人(印第安人)被剥夺了大部分土地，搬到了保留地;中原是向拿破仑(法国)购买的;1846 – 1848年美墨战争后，佛罗里达从西班牙手中夺取，整个西南部(包括加利福尼亚)也被吞并。美利坚合众国日益增长的影响力和规模开始成形。

A few more important facts regarding Native Americans, who were first conquered and displaced by overwhelming military power: As English expansion westward continued, it justifiably experienced wide-spread Amerindian resistance to their new settlements. In the end, many historical experts believe that among the various contributing factors to the ultimate demise of early Native Americans, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of their population decline because of their lack of immunity to new diseases brought from Europe.
关于美国原住民，还有一些更重要的事实，他们首先被强大的军事力量征服并流离失所:随着英国向西扩张的继续，他们理所当然地经历了美洲印第安人对他们新定居点的广泛抵抗。最后，许多历史学家认为，在导致早期印第安人最终灭亡的各种因素中，流行病是导致他们人口下降的主要原因，因为他们对来自欧洲的新疾病缺乏免疫力。
Soon railroads- the driving engines of coast-to-coast commerce -were up and running the economy exploded and towns sprang up across the land. In the southern states slavery was an on-going, serious problem, and this new and fast -growing nation was soon ravaged by a bloody Civil War between north and south. To northerners, slavery was immoral; to southerners, it was integral to their way of life and their plantation system of agriculture. The north (northern states) eventually won, and slavery was abolished.
很快，铁路——海岸到海岸商业的驱动引擎——建立起来，经济迅速发展，城镇在这片土地上拔地而起。在南方各州，奴隶制是一个持续的、严重的问题，这个新兴的、快速发展的国家很快就被一场南北之间的血腥内战所蹂躏。对北方人来说，奴隶制是不道德的;对南方人来说，这是他们生活方式和农业种植体系的一部分。北方(北方各州)最终获胜，奴隶制被废除。
The end of the Civil War spurred the reintegrating and rebuilding of the southern states and the greater settlement and development of the American Old West. This was due to a variety of social and technological developments, including the completion of the First Transcontinental Telegraph in 1861 and the First Transcontinental Railroad soon after.
南北战争的结束刺激了南方各州的重新整合和重建，以及美国旧西部的更大的定居和发展。这是由于各种社会和技术的发展，包括1861年第一条横贯大陆电报的建成和随后不久第一条横贯大陆铁路的建成。
The 1867 purchase of Alaska from Russia completed the country’s mainland expansion. In1893, the indigenous monarchy of the Pacific Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in a coup led by American residents, and the still-growing United States annexed the archipelago in 1898.Victory in the Spanish-American War the same year demonstrated that the United States was a world power and led to the annexation of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
1867年从俄罗斯手中购买阿拉斯加，完成了美国大陆的扩张。1893年，夏威夷太平洋王国的本土君主制在美国居民领导的政变中被推翻，1898年，仍在发展的美国吞并了这个群岛。同年美西战争的胜利表明美国是一个世界大国，并导致了波多黎各、关岛和菲律宾的吞并。
The emergence of many prominent industrialists at the end of the 19th century gave rise to the Gilded Age, a period of growing affluence and power among the business class. Railroads were the major industry then, but the factory system, mining, and labor unions also gained in importance.
19世纪末许多著名实业家的出现，催生了“镀金时代”(Gilded Age)，这是一个商业阶层财富和权力不断增长的时期。铁路是当时的主要工业，但工厂系统、采矿和工会也变得重要起来。
ln the northern states, urbanization and an unprecedented influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe hastened the country’s industrialization. The wave of immigration, lasting until the mid-1920s, provided labor and transformed American culture.
在北部各州，城市化和来自南欧和东欧的前所未有的移民涌入加速了该国的工业化。持续到20世纪20年代中期的移民潮提供了劳动力，改变了美国文化。
No stranger to wars, small or large, the US provided significant help in ending World War I; in World War II it helped destroy the Japanese Empire after they attacked the US at Pearl Harbor, and destroy Adolph Hitler’s German Army with the heroic assistance of other forces.
Mistakes it has surely made, as segregation and much-needed civil rights for blacks, and arguably the Vietnam War fiasco, and the on-going wars in Afghanistan and Iraq are certainly some of its questionable decisions. Today the United States of America (USA) remains the global super power, and the major provider of financial aid and military assistance across the planet.
美国对战争并不陌生，无论大小，美国为结束第一次世界大战提供了重大帮助;在第二次世界大战中，在日本袭击美国珍珠港后，它帮助摧毁了日本帝国，并在其他军队的英勇援助下摧毁了阿道夫·希特勒的德国军队。
在种族隔离和黑人急需的民权问题上，美国肯定犯过一些错误，越南战争的惨败，以及正在进行的阿富汗和伊拉克战争，这些都是美国的一些值得怀疑的决定。今天，美利坚合众国仍然是全球超级大国，是全球金融援助和军事援助的主要提供者。
As the world’s largest economy, it’s a significant leader in the fields of agriculture, education, energy, health care, high-tech, service industries, space exploration, and manufacturing of all descriptions.
The country includes 50 states; 48 continental states, plus Alaska and Hawaii, the two newest states. Dozens of major cities cover the land from coast-to-coast. Washington, D.C., the capital, reflects the incredible history of America, and stands as a proud symbol of its freedom, liberty, and justice for all.
作为世界上最大的经济体，它在农业、教育、能源、医疗保健、高科技、服务行业、太空探索和各种制造业领域都是重要的领导者。
这个国家包括50个州;48个大陆州，加上阿拉斯加和夏威夷这两个新加入的州。几十个主要城市覆盖了从海岸到海岸的土地。首都华盛顿特区，反映了美国不可思议的历史，并作为其自由、自由和对所有人公正的骄傲象征而屹立。

Section 3 Megalopolis第三节-特大城市

In 1961, Professor Jean Gottmann, a French geographer, published a monumental studyof the highly urbanized region located in the northeastern United States. He spent 20 yearsresearching the area extending from southern New Hampshire and northern Massachusetts toWashington, D.C.He argued that this was a “very special region,” and named it Megalopolis.
1961年，法国地理学家让·戈特曼教授发表了一篇关于美国东北部高度城市化地区的里程碑式研究报告。他花了20年的时间研究了从新罕布什尔州南部和马萨诸塞州北部延伸到华盛顿特区的地区，他认为这是一个“非常特殊的地区”，并将其命名为“Megalopolis”。

Megalopolis was formed along the northeastern coast of the United States by the gradualcoalescence of large, independent metropolitan areas. As the populations of these cities grew,the effects of growth spilled over into the surrounding rings of smaller places. Larger suburbsin these rings made their own contributions to the total urban sprawl.The outer fringes of theresultant metropolitan regions eventually began to merge with each other to form an extensiveurbanized region.
大都市区是在美国东北海岸由大的、独立的大都市逐渐形成的。随着这些城市人口的增长，增长的影响蔓延到了周边较小的地方。较大的郊区

The dominant theme of Megalopolis is “urbanness.”In varying degrees,urban servicesprovide for the millions who live in this region, and urban forms are never far away. Thereare office and apartment buildings, small shops and mammoth shopping centers, factories,refineries,residential areas, gas stations, and hamburger stands by the thousands —interspersed with warehouses to store temporarily the goods brought by ship, rail, and truck— allthis along the region’s 800-kilometer route.
“都市化”的主要主题是“都市化”。在不同程度上，城市服务为居住在这个地区的数百万人提供了服务，而城市形式也从未远离。这里有写字楼、公寓楼、小商店和庞大的购物中心、工厂、炼油厂、居民区、加油站和汉堡站，成千上万的地方都有仓库，临时存放船舶、铁路和卡车带来的货物–所有这些都是该地区800公里的路线。

But Megalopolis also contains many green spaces. Some are parks or other land availablefor recreation; well over 3 million hectares are devoted to farming.
但是Megalopolis也有很多绿地。其中一些是可供娱乐的公园或其他土地；300多万公顷用于耕作。

In spite of the mixed character of Megalopolis, it is its massive urban presence thatmakes this region so important in the United States.10 of the country’s 46 metropolitan areasexceeding 1 million population in 1990 were located in Megalopolis. The region holds 17percent of the total US population — in only 1.5 percent of the area of the country.
尽管Megalopolis的特点是混杂的，但正是它庞大的城市存在使得这个地区在美国如此重要。1990年，这个国家超过100万人口的46个大都市区中有10个位于Megalopolis。该地区拥有美国总人口的17%，仅占美国总人口的1.5%。

Average per capita income is high, and a higher than average proportion of its residentswork in white-collar and professional occupations. Transportation and communicationactivities are prominent, partly a result of the region’s coastal position.Approximately 40percent of all commercial international air-passenger departures have Megalopolitan centersas their origin. And almost 30 percent of American export trade passes through its 6 mainports.
平均人均收入很高，在白领和专业职业中，其居住者的比例高于平均水平。交通和通讯活动十分突出，部分原因是由于该地区的沿海位置，大约40%的国际商业航班都是以大都市中心为发源地的。几乎30%的美国出口贸易通过其6个主要港口。

Why has this particular portion of the United States developed as it has? Whenever ageographer is asked such a question, the first aspect of the region considered is usually itslocation. And, indeed, in the case of Megalopolis, the site and the situation of this vast urbanregion hold clues to its origins and growth.
为什么美国的这部分地区会像现在这样发展呢？每当年龄学家被问到这样一个问题时，考虑的第一个方面通常是它的位置。事实上，在Megalopolis的例子中，这个巨大的城市地区的遗址和情况为它的起源和发展提供了线索。

Many of the site characteristics are visible in the region’s outline.Occupying a coastalposition,the eastern margin of Megalopolis is deeply convoluted.Peninsulas jut into
许多地点特征在该地区的边界线上是可见的，占据沿海位置，大都市区的东缘是非常复杂的。
the Atlantic Ocean. Islands are scattered along the coast, some large enough to supportcommunities. Bays and river estuaries penetrate the landmass in a kind of mirror image ofthe land’s penetration of the ocean. This interpenetrated coastline brings more land areaclose to the ocean and, in this way, provides greater opportunity for access to cheap watertransportation than would a straighter coast.
大西洋。岛屿分散在沿海，有些大得足以支撑社区。海湾和河口以陆地穿透海洋的镜像穿透陆地。这种相互渗透的海岸线给海洋带来了更多的陆地面积，从而为获得廉价的水路运输提供了比一个更直的海岸更多的机会。

Quality harbors must also be present, and Megalopolis straddles some of the best naturalharbors in America. The northern half of Megalopolis was covered by ice during the mostrecent of the continental glaciers.As the ice cover began to melt, the erosive power of the riverscut deeply into the flat coastal plain. As sea level rose, the lower river valleys were “drowned” toform estuaries. These glacial river valleys formed some of the harbors that later proved usefulin the development of Megalopolis.
质量好的港口也必须存在，而且Megalopolis横跨美国一些最好的天然港口。在最近的大陆冰川时期，梅加洛波利斯的北部地区被冰覆盖，当冰盖开始融化时，河流的侵蚀力深深地侵入了平坦的海岸平原。随着海平面的上升，下游的河谷被“淹死”形成河口。这些冰川河谷形成了一些港口，后来证明这些港口在大都市区的发展中是有用的。

The general topographic features of Megalopolis south of New York provide additionalurban site benefits. Traveling inland from the Atlantic Coast, a very flat coastal plain issucceeded by a rolling, frequently hilly landscape called the Piedmont. Wherever rivers flowoff the Piedmont, a series of rapids and small waterfalls are formed along a line tracing thephysiographic boundary — a boundary known as the fall line.
纽约南部大城市的一般地形特征提供了额外的城市用地效益。从大西洋海岸向内陆旅行，一片非常平坦的海岸平原被称为山麓的起伏起伏的丘陵地貌所覆盖。无论河流从山前流向何处，沿着地形边界形成一系列急流和小瀑布–这条边界被称为瀑布线。

Early settlers found the fall line to be a hindrance to water navigation but an obvioussource of water power. Settlements developed along the fall line, locations as far inland aspossible but still possessing access to ocean shipping.
早期的定居者发现瀑布线阻碍了水的航行，但却是一个明显的水源。定居点沿着秋季线发展，地点尽可能远内陆，但仍然拥有远洋航运的通道。

This portion of North America was also on or near the most direct sea route betweenEurope and the productive plantations of the Caribbean colonies and southern America. Theports around which Megalopolis later grew, therefore, were convenient stopping places andcontributed actively to the transoceanic trade that expanded rapidly during the 18th and 19thcenturies. The greatest growth of Megalopolis occurred in New York, Philadelphia,Boston, andBaltimore.
北美洲的这一部分也处于或接近欧洲与加勒比殖民地和南美洲的生产性种植园之间最直接的海上航线上。因此，梅加洛波利斯后来发展起来的港口是方便的停靠地，也是在18和19世纪迅速扩张的跨洋贸易的积极贡献。最大的增长发生在纽约，费城，波士顿和巴尔的摩。
The most unusual feature of this region is not the fact that these cities grew, but that 4such large cities (later to become 5 with the addition of Washington) continued to grow inclose proximity to one another. Washington is unique because its growth has followed directlyfrom expansion of the national government structure. The other 4 cities, along with manysmaller ones along the Megalopolitan axis, depended largely on economic stimulation.Sogreat was national growth during the 19th century, and so strong were the linkages betweenthe interior and these 4 ports, that none of the 4 could wholly absorb the flow of goods to anyof its neighbors and competitors.By the turn of the 20th century, the combined economicresources of these cities’ hinterlands had reached continental proportions.
这一地区最不寻常的特点不是这些城市的增长，而是这样的4个大城市(后来随着华盛顿的加入而成为5个)彼此之间的距离不断扩大。华盛顿之所以独一无二，是因为它的增长直接源于国家政府结构的扩张。其他4座城市，以及大城市轴线沿线的许多较小城市，在很大程度上依赖于经济刺激。19世纪是国家的经济增长，内陆与这4个港口之间的联系如此紧密，四个城市中没有一个能够完全吸收流向邻国和竞争对手的货物。到20世纪末，这些城市腹地的综合经济资源已经达到了欧洲大陆的水平。

Section 4 Immigration in the United States

第四节美国移民
The United States is overwhelmingly a nation of immigrants and their descendants.While there are similarities in the experiences of each new group, there are also importantdifferences. Every group experienced both a push and a pull — something that drove themto leave their original homeland and something that brought them to the United States.Sometimes the push and pull were economic. Sometimes people fled political or religiouspersecution.
美国是一个由移民及其后代组成的国家，每一个新群体的经历都有相似之处，但也有重要的差异。每一组人都经历了一次压力和一次拉力–这驱使他们离开了自己的家乡，也经历了一些将他们带到美国的东西，有时是经济上的。有时人们逃离政治或宗教迫害。

Many immigrants saw their initial move to the new world as temporary.They hoped tofind work, build a financial stake, and then return to their homeland.While many people didgo back, most became Americans. While every group experienced hardship when they arrived,
许多移民认为他们最初搬到新世界是暂时的，他们希望找到工作，建立经济利益，然后回到家乡，虽然许多人回去了，但大多数人成了美国人。当每一群人到达时都经历了困难，
the original African migration to the Americas was unique. People from Africa were forcedmigrants who were brought to the United States and the Caribbean against their will.
最初的非洲移民到美洲是独一无二的。来自非洲的人是被迫移民，他们违背自己的意愿被带到美国和加勒比。

First Migration
首次移民

Human life and culture originated in East Africa and spread across the entire planet.Between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago, nomadic Asian hunters became the first people to settlein the Americas.As they searched for food, they followed herds of game animals across atemporary land bridge that stretched from Siberia to Alaska. These people became the NativeAmericans or Indians.
人类的生命和文化起源于东非，遍布整个地球。5万至2万年前，游牧亚洲猎人成为第一个定居在美国的人。他们在寻找食物时，跟随着成群的猎兽穿过从西伯利亚到阿拉斯加的临时陆地桥。这些人变成了美国本土人或印度人。

Europeans and Africans,1500— 1840
欧洲人和非洲人，1500-1840

After the arrival of Columbus in 1492,European people settled in and conquered theAmericas. During this period they built new independent nations in North and South Americaand the Caribbean. The major European groups that settled in the future United Statesincluded people from the British Isles,Spain, France, and Holland. Most of these immigrantswere poor people who came looking for work and land. Many came as indentured servants orforced prison laborers. Some fled wars in Europe and hoped that in a new world they wouldfind peace or be able to follow their own religious practices.
1492年哥伦布到达后，欧洲人定居并征服了美洲。在此期间，他们在北美、南美洲和加勒比地区建立了新的独立国家。在未来美国定居的主要欧洲团体包括来自不列颠群岛、西班牙、法国和荷兰的人。这些移民大多是来找工作和土地的穷人。许多人是契约仆人或被强迫的监狱劳工。有些人逃离了欧洲的战争，希望在一个新的世界里，他们能找到和平，或者能够遵循自己的宗教习俗。

During this period, the Europeans forced millions of West Africans to come to the UnitedStates as slave labor to work on the sugar, cotton and tobacco plantations.In 1793, a successfulAfrican slave rebellion created the first independent Caribbean nation of Haiti.
在此期间，欧洲人强迫数以百万计的西非人作为奴隶劳工来到美国，从事糖、棉花和烟草种植。1793年，一次成功的非洲奴隶叛乱创造了加勒比第一个独立的国家海地。

New Arrivals
新来港人士

From 1840 until 1880, new European groups migrated to the United States. The lrish fledstarvation and persecution by the British. In the United States they became factory workersand helped build the canals, railroads, and the labor movement. Scandinavians were farmingpeople who largely settled in the Midwest. The Germans migrated in large numbers becauseof war and failed revolutions. Many Germans were skilled workers and they settled in newcities. During this period there were so many German immigrants that Chicago schools taughtstudents in German. People of German decent remain the largest ethnic group in the UnitedStates today.
从1840年到1880年，新的欧洲集团移民到美国。爱尔兰羽翼未丰的英国人的饥饿和迫害。在美国，他们成为工厂工人，帮助修建运河、铁路和劳工运动。斯堪的纳维亚人是农民，主要定居在中西部。由于战争和失败的革命，德国人大量移民。许多德国人是熟练工人，他们在新城市定居。在这一时期，德国移民如此之多，以至于芝加哥的学校用德语把学生拉紧了。今天，德国人仍然是美国最大的民族。

During this period large numbers of Chinese also migrated to the United States. Theysettled on the west coast where they helped to build the railroads. When the economy wasstrong, these new people were generally accepted.However, economic hard times broughtstrong anti-immigrant feelings including the spread of racist ideas. Immigrant workers wereattacked, their unions were broken, and laws were passed to keep out new immigrants. In 1882the first exclusion laws banned immigrants from China and other “undesirables.”In 1908, theUnited States also blocked immigration from Japan.
在此期间，大量中国人也移居美国。他们定居在西海岸，在那里他们帮助修建铁路。当经济强劲时，这些新人被普遍接受，但经济困难时期却表现出强烈的反移民情绪，包括种族主义思想的传播。移民工人遭到攻击，他们的工会遭到破坏，并通过法律将新移民拒之门外。1882年，第一部排除法禁止来自中国和其他“不受欢迎”的移民。1908年，美国也阻止了来自日本的移民。
Ellis Island
埃利斯岛

Between 1880 and 1921 millions of new immigrants poured into the United Statesfrom Eastern and Southern Europe and from Mexico. They included Slavic people like
1880年至1921年期间，数百万新移民从东欧和南欧以及墨西哥涌入美国。他们包括斯拉夫人

Russians,Poles, and Ukrainians, Mediterranean groups like Italians,Sicilians,Greeks,Turksand Armenians, and religious groups like the Eastern European Jews. Most of these newimmigrants arrived by boat in New York City through Ellis Island. They were poor people whotraveled in“ steerage,” along with their luggage in the hold of large steamships.
俄罗斯人、波兰人、乌克兰人、意大利人、西西里人、希腊人、土库曼人、亚美尼亚人和东欧犹太人等宗教团体。这些新移民大多是乘船经过埃利斯岛抵达纽约市的。他们是穷人，他们乘坐“船舱”，以及他们的行李在大型轮船的货舱里。

Most of the new arrivals from Europe settled in Eastern coast and midwestern cities wherethey lived in overcrowded slums and unhealthy and unsafe tenement housing. Many diddangerous work in mines, mills, and factories. In New York City, immigrants dug the subwaytunnels and water aqueducts, built the skyscrapers and bridges, and developed the garmentindustry.Conditions were so difficult that almost 50% of the Italians and Sicilians and over30% of the Slavs who came to the United States eventually returned home. Many immigrantswere union leaders and political activists who tried to improve conditions for poor people andworkers. Mother Jones and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn were Irish. Joe Hill was Swedish. Sacco andVanzetti were Italian. Sam Gompers,Sidney Hillman, and David Dubinsky were Jews.
大多数来自欧洲的新移民定居在东海岸和中西部城市，他们居住在过度拥挤的贫民窟和不健康和不安全的住房中。许多人在矿山、磨坊和工厂从事危险的工作。在纽约市，移民挖地铁隧道和输水管道，建造摩天大楼和桥梁，发展服装工业，条件如此困难，以至于近50%的意大利人和西西里人以及30%以上的斯拉夫人最终回到了美国。许多移民是工会领袖和政治活动家，他们试图改善穷人和工人的生活条件。琼斯母亲和伊丽莎白·格利·弗林是爱尔兰人。乔·希尔是瑞典人。萨科和万泽蒂是意大利人。山姆·冈帕斯、西德尼·希尔曼和大卫·杜宾斯基是犹太人。

By 1919, anti-immigrant sentiment was growing in the United States again. Southernand Eastern European immigrants were branded as radicals and undesirables who couldnever become truly American.In 1921 and 1924 quota laws were passed to effectively stopimmigration from these areas.
到1919年，美国的反移民情绪再次增长。南欧和东欧移民被称为激进分子和不受欢迎的人，他们永远不会成为真正的美国人。1921年和1924年通过了配额法，有效地阻止了这些地区的移民。

Internal Immigrants
国内移民

Quotas on foreign immigration unleashed a wave of internal migration between 1920and 1965.The largest groups to move were from the US south.Rural Southern blacks andwhites migrated to northern and western cities seeking work in expanding factories.ManyAfrican Americans hoped to find increased freedom away from the racially segregated south.This migration created new African American communities in New York City in Harlem andBedford-Stuyvesant.Spanish-speaking Puerto Ricans came to the mainland seeking work inrecord numbers during these years. Because Puerto Rico was a US colony, Puerto Ricans werenot restricted by immigration quotas.
20世纪20年代至1965年，移民配额引发了一波国内移民浪潮。最大的移民群体来自美国南部。南部农村黑人和白人移民到北部和西部城市寻求扩大就业机会。许多非裔美国人希望从种族隔离的南方获得更多的自由。这种移民在纽约市的哈莱姆和贝德福德-斯图伊文森(Stuyvesant.西班牙语)创造了新的非裔美国人社区。讲西班牙语的波多黎各人这些年来来大陆寻求工作的人数创下历史新高。因为波多黎各是美国的殖民地，波多黎各人不受移民配额的限制。

Newest Immigrants
最新移民

In 1965, the United States revised its immigration laws, making it possible for millions ofnew immigrants to enter the country. The newest immigrants to the United States,Brooklyn,and East New York, include tens of thousands of people from the Caribbean, South and CentralAmerica,West Africa,Eastern Europe, and Asia. These people seek work and economic,political, and religious freedom. Despite hostility that has often greeted them, many havedecided to put down roots and become United States citizens.
1965年，美国修订了移民法，使数百万新移民得以进入美国。美国、布鲁克林和东纽约的最新移民包括来自加勒比、南美洲和中美洲、西非、东欧和亚洲的数万人。这些人寻求工作和经济、政治和宗教自由。尽管他们经常受到敌意的欢迎，但许多人已经扎根，成为美国公民。

第五章节：

一、 第五单元：政府和政治

Section 1 The Constitutional Monarchy第一节君主立宪制

The British monarchy stands for the continuity of British history going back to Anglo-Saxon times, and today it serves as a figurehead for the state. In theory, the British monarch has enormous powers, but in reality those powers are limited and the crown follows the dictates and advice of the ministers in Parliament. The British monarchy has been a hereditary position since the 9th century.
英国君主政体象征着英国历史的延续，可以追溯到盎格鲁-撒克逊时代，如今它是国家的象征。从理论上讲，英国君主拥有巨大的权力，但实际上这些权力是有限的，国王必须服从议会中大臣们的指示和建议。英国君主制自9世纪以来一直是世袭的。
Primogeniture the passing of the throne to the eldest son when a monarch dies, has been the rule of succession, and when there are no sons, the eldest daughter ascends the throne. This was the case when Elizabeth ll succeeded to the throne in February 1952 upon the death of her father, George VI. Her husband, Prince Philip, has the title of Prince Consort, but no rank or privileges. The current heir to the throne is Elizabeth lI’ s eldest son, Charles,Prince of Wales. According to the Act of Settlement of 1701, only Protestants are eligible to succeed to the throne.A regent may be appointed to rule for the sovereign if he or she is underage or incapacitated.
长子继承制君主去世时王位传给长子，一直是继承权的规则，当没有儿子时，长女继承王位。1952年2月，伊丽莎白二世在她父亲乔治六世去世后继承王位时就是这样。她的丈夫菲利普亲王拥有亲王头衔，但没有任何等级或特权。目前的王位继承人是伊丽莎白·李的长子，威尔士亲王查尔斯。根据1701年的《和解法案》，只有新教徒才有资格继承王位。如果摄政王未成年或无行为能力，可以任命他或她为君主统治。
As the official head of state, the monarch formally summons and dismisses Parliament and the ministers of the Cabinet.The monarch also serves as head of the judiciary,commander in chief of the armed forces, and Supreme Governor of the Church of England and the Church of Scotland. In reality, the government carries out the duties associated with these functions. Theoretically, the monarch appoints all judges,military officers, diplomats,and archbishops, as well as other church officers. The monarch also bestows honors and awards,such as knighthoods and peerages. In reality, all of these appointments are made upon the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister declares war and peace and concludes treaties with foreign states in the name of the crown.The monarch serves as the ceremonial head of the Commonwealth of Nations and is the ceremonial head of state for 16 Commonwealth countries.
The real work of the monarchy consists largely of signing papers. The monarch has the right, however, to be consulted on all aspects of national life and review all important government documents. The monarch may also meet with the Privy Council, a now largely ceremonial body made up of Cabinet members that serves in an advisory capacity to the monarch.Since Britain is a democracy, the monarchy could potentially be abolished if a majority of the population decides to do so. In the early 21st century the monarchy generally remained popular,despite unpleasant media coverage surrounding the marriages and relationships of the royal family. Only Scotland had a small majority that wanted to make the United Kingdom a republic.
作为国家的官方元首，君主正式召集和解散议会和内阁大臣。君主还兼任司法机关首脑、军队总司令、英格兰国教会和苏格兰国教会的最高统治者。实际上，政府执行与这些函数相关的职责。理论上，君主任命所有法官、军官、外交官、大主教以及其他教会官员。君主还授予荣誉和奖励，如骑士和贵族。事实上，所有这些任命都是根据首相的建议做出的。首相以国王的名义宣布战争与和平并与外国缔结条约。君主是英联邦的礼仪元首，也是16个英联邦国家的礼仪元首。
君主制的真正工作主要是签署文件。然而，君主有权就国家生活的各个方面征求意见，有权审查所有重要的政府文件。君主也可能会与枢密院会面，枢密院目前主要由内阁成员组成，为君主提供咨询服务。由于英国是一个民主国家，如果大多数人决定废除君主制，君主制就有可能被废除。在21世纪初，尽管媒体对王室的婚姻和关系进行了不愉快的报道，但君主制总体上仍然很受欢迎。只有苏格兰的微弱多数希望联合王国成为共和国。
The royal family endorses developments in Britain by performing such ceremonial functions as cutting ribbons, opening businesses, launching ships, and laying cornerstones. Many members of the royal family are involved in charity work and maintain a public presence by visiting shelters,hospitals, and clinics. Because foreigners are attracted to the pageantry of royalty, tourism related to the royal family brings a substantial amount of money into the country.
王室通过剪彩、开业、下水和铺设基石等仪式来支持英国的发展。许多王室成员都参与慈善工作，并通过访问避难所、医院和诊所来保持公众形象。因为外国人被皇室的华丽场面所吸引，与王室有关的旅游业给这个国家带来了大量的金钱。

Section 2 The Prime Minister and the Cabinet第二节首相和内阁

The chief executive of the British Government is the Prime Minister. He or she is the leader of the party that holds the most seats in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet and selects the other Cabinet members, who join him or her to form the government that is part of the functioning executive. Acting through the Cabinet and in the name of the monarch, the Prime Minister exercises all of the theoretical powers of the crown,including making appointments. Number 10 Downing Street in London has been the official residence of the British Prime Ministers.
The current Prime Minister is David Cameron, leader of the Conservative Party, who was appointed by Queen Elizabeth ll on 11 May,2010 following the General Election on 6 May, 2010.
英国政府的行政长官是首相。他或她是下议院中拥有最多席位的政党的领导人。首相主持内阁，并选择其他内阁成员，这些成员与他或她一起组成执行职能的政府。首相通过内阁以君主的名义行使国王的所有理论上的权力，包括任命。伦敦唐宁街10号一直是英国首相的官邸。
现任首相是保守党领袖大卫·卡梅伦，他是在2010年5月6日大选后由伊丽莎白女王二世于2010年5月11日任命的。

When legislation comes before the House of Commons, the Prime Minister can usually count on the support of a majority of the votes because his or her party has a majority of the seats, and party discipline tends to be strong in Britain.At times a Prime Minister comes from a party that does not quite have a majority of seats in the House of Commons. In such a case,that party must rely on an alliance with smaller parties, the smaller parties voting with the party in power on necessary legislation. A government formed from a party without a majority in Parliament is called a minority government. For example, the general election 2010 failed to provide a decisive result, with the Conservatives as the biggest party within a hung parliament. A coalition government was formed on between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats.
The Cabinet developed during the 18th century out of informal meetings of key government ministers. The Cabinet has about 20 members, or ministers, all of whom must be members of Parliament (MP s). Members of the Cabinet are leaders of the majority party in the House of Commons or,more rarely, members of the House of Lords. Cabinet ministers who head a particular government department, such as the Ministry of Defense, are known as secretaries of state. The Prime Minister serves as the first lord of the treasury and as minister for the civil service.The Prime Minister has the power to move members of the Cabinet from

当立法提交下议院时，首相通常可以依靠多数选票的支持，因为他或她的政党拥有多数席位，而在英国，政党纪律往往很强。有时，首相来自一个在下议院不占多数席位的政党。在这种情况下，该政党必须依赖与较小政党的联盟，较小政党在必要的立法上支持执政党。由在议会中没有多数席位的政党组成的政府被称为少数党政府。例如，2010年的大选未能产生决定性的结果，保守党是无多数议会中的最大政党。保守党和自由民主党组成了联合政府。
内阁在18世纪由主要政府部长的非正式会议发展而来。内阁大约有20名成员或部长，他们都必须是议会成员。内阁成员是下议院多数党领袖，或者更少见的是上议院成员。领导特定政府部门(如国防部)的内阁部长被称为国务卿。首相是第一任财政大臣和行政部长。首相有权罢免内阁成员

post to post, or to drop individuals from the Cabinet entirely.Former Cabinet ministers may retain their positions as members of Parliament.
Two key doctrines of Cabinet government are collective responsibility and ministerial responsibility. Collective responsibility means that the Cabinet acts unanimously, even when Cabinet ministers do not all agree upon a subject. If an important decision is unacceptable to a particular Cabinet member, it is expected that he or she will resign to signify dissent. Ministerial responsibility means that ministers are responsible for the work of their departments and answer to Parliament for the activities of their departments. The policy of departmental ministers must be consistent with that of the government as a whole.The ministers bear the responsibility for any failure of their department in terms of administration or policy.
一个职位接着一个职位，或者完全从内阁中撤除个人。前内阁部长可以保留他们作为议会成员的职位。
内阁政府的两大核心理念是集体责任和部级责任。集体责任意味着内阁一致行动，即使内阁部长们在一个问题上意见不一致。如果某一重要决定不能被某位内阁成员接受，他或她将辞职以示异议。部长责任是指部长们负责本部门的工作，并就本部门的活动向议会负责。各部门部长的政策必须与全体政府的政策相一致。部长们要对其部门在行政或政策方面的任何失败负责。

Section 3 The British Parliament第三节英国议会

The political center of the United Kingdom is the Houses of Parliament, located along the Thames River in London.
The British Parliament comprises three parts: the Crown, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons. By the end of the Middle Ages Parliament had taken on a form that would be recognized today. It legislated and approved taxes and passed laws. Long, complicated struggles between the monarch and the two houses of Parliament resulted in the government gaining power, while the crown lost power.
In the 20th century the House of Commons successfully struggled to curtail the power of the House of Lords. Today the House of Lords can only delay legislation. For the past 280 years the Monarch’s royal assent to legislation has been given automatically.
Parliament is elected roughly every 5 years and is dissolved by the Crown on the advice of the Prime Minister, who then calls a general election. Parliamentary sessions are held each year and begin in October or November. Parliament meets at the Houses of Parliament in London, officially called the New Palace of Westminster.The Parliament of the United Kingdom legislates for the entire nation and includes representatives from England, Scotland,Wales, and Northern Ireland.
英国的政治中心是议会大厦，位于伦敦泰晤士河沿岸。
英国议会由三部分组成:王室、上议院和下议院。到中世纪末期，议会已经呈现出一种今天仍被认可的形式。它立法，批准税收，通过法律。君主和议会两院之间长期复杂的斗争导致政府获得了权力，而国王失去了权力。
在20世纪，下议院成功地削弱了上议院的权力。今天，上议院只能推迟立法。在过去的280年里，君主对立法的皇家许可是自动授予的。
议会大约每5年选举一次，在首相的建议下由王室解散，首相随后举行大选。议会会议每年举行，在10月或11月开始。议会在伦敦的议会大厦开会，正式名称为威斯敏斯特新宫。联合王国的议会代表整个国家，包括来自英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰的代表。
The House of Lords
The House of Lords today is more a place of discussion and debate than one of power,and it normally passes legislation already approved by the House of Commons. Its members are not elected. The House of Lords is made up of the lords temporal, the lords spiritual, and the law lords. The lords temporal are either hereditary peers or life peers. The House of Lords long consisted primarily of hereditary peers; today, however, the majority of members of the House of Lords — about 600 — are life peers. Life peers are appointed by the Monarch for the duration of the person’s lifetime. These appointments are usually made in recognition of outstanding careers or contributions to society. The lords spiritual include the archbishops of Canterbury and York; the bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester. The law lords, or lords of appeal, assist in the judicial functions of the House of Lords.
The House of Lords has the power to introduce bills, although bills dealing with financial matters can only originate in the House of Commons. The Lords can also offer amendments to bills passed by the House of Commons, and the House of Commons is obligated to consider these amendments before passing a bill into law. The Lords have the right to delay legislation,
上议院
今天的上议院更多的是讨论和辩论的场所，而不是权力的场所，它通常通过下议院已经通过的立法。它的成员不是选举产生的。上议院是由世俗贵族，精神贵族和大法官组成的。世袭贵族或终身贵族。长期以来，上议院主要由世袭贵族组成;然而今天，上议院的大多数成员——大约600人——是终身贵族。终身贵族是由君主在其有生之年任命的。这些任命通常是为了表彰杰出的事业或对社会的贡献。贵族的精神包括坎特伯雷和约克的大主教;伦敦达勒姆和温彻斯特主教上议院大法官或上诉法官协助上议院的司法职能。
上议院有权提出法案，尽管涉及金融事务的法案只能在下议院提出。上议院也可以对下议院通过的法案提出修正案，而下议院有义务在通过法案成为法律之前考虑这些修正案。上议院有权推迟立法，
and may delay bills for up to about a year. Financial bills,however, may only be delayed fora month, and they become law in 30 days whether or not the House of Lords approves of them.The terms of the Parliament Acts of 191l and 1949 forbid the Lords from disapproving nonfinancial bills if the House of Commons has passed them in 2 successive sessions. The only exception is a bill to lengthen the life of a Parliament past 5 years, which requires the assent of both chambers.
These powers of the House of Lords are limited because most Britons believe that in a modern democracy a nonelected house should only act as a forum for opinion, one that is comparatively free from party politics and pressures. Although this house has relatively little power, many Britons would like to either abolish it completely or replace it with some form of elected second chamber.
而且可能会将账单推迟一年左右。然而，金融法案只能推迟一个月，不管上议院是否批准，它们都将在30天内成为法律。1911年和1949年的《议会法案》规定，如果下议院连续两次会议通过非金融法案，上议院不得否决。唯一的例外是一项将议会任期延长至5年的法案，这需要两院的同意。
上议院的这些权力是有限的，因为大多数英国人认为，在现代民主制度中，一个非选举产生的议会应该只充当意见论坛，一个相对不受政党政治和压力影响的论坛。尽管众议院的权力相对较小，但许多英国人希望要么完全废除它，要么以某种形式的选举产生的第二议院取代它。
The House of Commons
The House of Commons is the source of real political power in the United Kingdom.Members of the House of Commons, commonly known as Members of Parliament (MP),are democratically elected from geographical constituencies determined by population,and each MP generally represents a constituency of 60,000 to 70,000 people. 4 permanent boundary commissions exist, one each for England, Wales,Scotland, and Northern lreland. Their purpose is to keep the constituencies equal and the boundaries fair.The commissions review the constituencies every 8 to 12 years and recommend changes based on population shifts.
A session of Parliament lasts for 5 years unless the Prime Minister dissolves Parliament,which can happen for a number of reasons.Although the monarch officially dissolves Parliament, this happens only after the Prime Minister calls for it. The Prime Minister can dissolve Parliament over a major issue that he or she believes should be submitted to the voters. The Prime Minister also might dissolve Parliament if the tide of public opinion seems to be flowing strongly on the side of the party in office.Holding a general election when public opinion is highly supportive of the party in power enables that party to possibly gain more seats in the House of Commons, and so extend their stay in power with a stronger majority.
下议院
下议院是英国真正政治权力的来源。下议院议员，通常被称为国会议员(MP)，是由人口决定的地理选区民主选举产生的，每个议员通常代表6万到7万人的选区。目前有4个永久性边界委员会，分别负责英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰和北爱尔兰。他们的目的是保持选区的平等和边界的公平。各委员会每8至12年审查一次选区，并根据人口变动提出改变建议。
议会会期为5年，除非首相解散议会，解散议会有多种原因。尽管君主会正式解散议会，但只有在首相提出要求后才会这样做。首相可以在他或她认为应该提交给选民的重大问题上解散议会。如果公众舆论倾向于执政党一方，首相也可能解散议会。在公众对执政党高度支持的情况下举行大选，执政党有可能在下议院获得更多席位，从而以更强的多数优势延长执政时间。
Parliament can also be dissolved if the government is defeated on an important piece of legislation. When a Parliamentary majority votes against the legislation it is treated as a vote of no confidence for the Prime Minister and his government.A specific vote by that name may betaken to indicate that the majority of MPs are against the legislation. This tradition is so deep that actual votes of no confidence are rarely taken.
The members of the majority party sit on one side of the house, directly facing the minority party members. Each side has a so-called front bench where its most important political leaders sit. The Prime Minister and his or her Cabinet colleagues sit in the majority party front bench.The opposition party front bench is occupied by what is called the Shadow
如果政府在一项重要立法中被击败，议会也可以解散。当议会多数投票反对该法案时，就被视为对总理及其政府的不信任投票。以该名称进行的具体投票可能表明大多数议员反对该立法。这一传统如此根深蒂固，以至于很少进行实际的不信任投票。
多数党成员坐在议会的一侧，直接面对少数党成员。每一方都有一个所谓的前席，最重要的政治领导人坐在那里。首相和他或她的内阁同僚坐在多数党的前座。反对党的前席被所谓的“影子”占据
Cabinet, which consists of the opposition party leader and those who would receive Cabinet posts if the opposition leader became Prime Minister. Debates in the House of Commons can be quite lively.C-SPAN television in America often broadcasts the raucous sessions when the Prime Minister answers questions from the house.
内阁，由反对党领袖和那些如果反对党领袖成为总理将获得内阁职位的人组成。当首相在下议院回答问题时，美国的c – span电视台经常播放吵闹的节目。

Section 4 Political Parties and the Voting System 第四节政党和选举制度

British political parties dated back to the 17th century, when the Whig and the Tory parties appeared during the time of the Revolution of 1688.Whigs believed in a strong Parliament and came from the landed classes who were allied with the merchants and nonconformist or non-Anglican Protestants. Tory supporters came from the landed aristocracy and were defenders of the King and the Church of England.In the 1800 s the Whigs merged with other parties interested in social reform to form the Liberal Party. The Tories took on the additional name of the Conservative Party dating from the 1830 s in order to appeal to a broader electorate,and both names are used interchangeably. The Conservative Party is still a major party in the United Kingdom, but the Labor Party, founded around the turn of the 20th century, grew to become the primary opposition to the Conservatives, taking the place of the Liberals. The Liberal Party evolved into the Liberal Democrat Party, the third most popular party in Britain.
英国政党的历史可以追溯到17世纪，1688年革命期间出现了辉格党和托利党。辉格党人信奉一个强大的议会，他们来自地主阶级，与商人、非国教或非圣公会新教徒结盟。保守党的支持者来自土地贵族，他们是国王和英格兰国教会的捍卫者。在19世纪，辉格党与其他对社会改革感兴趣的政党合并，组成自由党。为了吸引更广泛的选民，保守党从19世纪30年代开始使用保守党的另一个名字，这两个名字是可以互换使用的。保守党仍然是英国的主要政党，但20世纪初成立的工党取代自由党，成为保守党的主要反对党。自由党发展成为英国第三大政党——自由民主党。
Since its founding days, the Labor Party has drawn traditional financial and electoral support from the trade unions. The Labor Party has a socialist element,supporting state control of important industries and a more equal distribution of wealth.After World War I(1939—1945), the Labor government nationalized a number of industries and established the welfare state, which provided people with social security, unemployment insurance, and the National Health Service. Subsequent Conservative governments denationalized industries but kept the National Health Service and the main provisions of the welfare state. In recent years,trade union membership has declined, as has union influence in the Labor Party. At the same time, the Labor Party has moved toward the political center; in 1995 it gave up its commitment to socialism and the nationalization of industries. The Labor Party won the May 1997 general elections by a landslide, taking 418 of the 659 seats in Parliament. Labor retained its majority-party status following the 2001 and 2005 general elections.
工党自成立以来，一直从工会那里获得传统的财政和选举支持。工党有社会主义的成分，支持国家控制重要行业和更平等地分配财富。第一次世界大战后(1939-1945)，工党政府将一些行业国有化，建立了福利国家，为人们提供社会保障、失业保险和国家医疗服务。随后的保守党政府将工业去国有化，但保留了国民医疗服务和福利国家的主要条款。近年来，工会成员数量下降，工会在工党中的影响力也在下降。与此同时，工党已向政治中心靠拢;1995年，它放弃了对社会主义和工业国有化的承诺。1997年5月，工党以压倒性优势赢得了议会659个席位中的418个。工党在2001年和2005年的大选中保持了多数党地位。
The Conservative Party favors private enterprise and minimal state regulation,and accepts the mixed economy, which involves private ownership of businesses with some government control. The British business community is a strong supporter of the Conservative Party because it has historically supported private enterprise and a free market. In the 1980s the Conservative government under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher sought to increase private enterprise and reduce public legislation by introducing more competition into the National Health Service and by selling off public housing.Thatcher’s domestic policies were highly controversial and eventually led to the downfall of the Conservative government in the mid-1990s. Subsequently, the Conservative Party became the largest opposition party in Parliament, as the Labor Party won three straight victories (in 1997,2001, and 2005).
保守党支持私营企业和最低限度的国家监管，并接受混合经济，即企业的私有制和一些政府控制。英国商界是保守党的坚定支持者，因为保守党在历史上一直支持私营企业和自由市场。上世纪80年代，英国首相玛格丽特·撒切尔(Margaret Thatcher)领导的保守党政府试图通过向国民医疗服务体系(National Health Service)引入更多竞争和出售公共住房来增加私营企业，减少公共立法。撒切尔的国内政策备受争议，最终导致保守党政府在上世纪90年代中期垮台。随后，工党在1997年、2001年、2005年连续三次获胜，保守党成为议会中最大的反对党。
The most important of Britain’s minor parties is the Liberal Democrat Party, formed in 1988 from the remnants of the Liberal Party and a majority of the Social Democratic Party.The Liberal Democrats make up the third largest party in Parliament, after Labor and the Conservatives. Other parties include the Scottish Nationalist Party; Plaid Cymru, the welsh nationalist party that seeks self-government for Wales; and parties in Northern lreland— Sinn Fein, the Ulster Unionist Party, the Democratic Unionist Party, and the Social Democratic and Labor Party.
英国最重要的小党派是自由民主党，1988年由自由党的残余势力和占多数的社会民主党组成。自由民主党是议会中第三大政党，仅次于工党和保守党。其他政党包括苏格兰民族党;寻求威尔士自治的威尔士民族主义党;北爱尔兰的政党——新芬党、阿尔斯特统一党、民主统一党和社会民主与工党。
The current voting system is called “first past the post.”This means that the party and candidates receiving the most votes win the election and become the party in power even if they do not receive more than 50 percent of the vote.Under this system, smaller parties have proportionally less representation in Parliament than their share of the popular vote,as their candidates often do not garner enough votes in constituencies to send members to Parliament.As a result, some people support a system of proportional representation, which is used in a number of European countries. In such a system, which can take various forms, the number of seats a party receives in the legislature is proportional to the number of votes the party receives in the election. Critics of proportional representation assert that it produces too many political parties and leads to weak governments.
目前的投票制度被称为“第一超票制”。这意味着，得票最多的政党和候选人在选举中获胜，即使得票率不超过50%，也将成为执政党。在这种制度下，小党派在议会中的代表比例低于他们在普选中的份额，因为他们的候选人往往不能在选区获得足够的选票来将成员送入议会。因此，一些人支持在一些欧洲国家使用的比例代表制。在这种可以采取多种形式的制度中，一个政党在立法机关中获得的席位与该政党在选举中获得的选票数量成正比。比例代表制的批评者声称，比例代表制产生了太多的政党，导致了软弱的政府。

Section 1 The United States Constitution 第一节美国宪法

Like most nation states, the American political system is clearly defined by basic documents. The Declaration of Independence of 1776 and the Constitution of 1789 form the foundations of the United States federal government. The Declaration of Independence establishes the United States as an independent political entity, while the Constitution defines the framework of American government and politics, establishing the United States of America, its national government and outlining the relationships between that government, the people and the states.
与大多数民族国家一样，美国的政治制度由基本文件明确界定。1776年的《独立宣言》和1789年的《宪法》构成了美国联邦政府的基础。《独立宣言》确立了美国作为一个独立的政治实体的地位，而《宪法》则界定了美国政府和政治的框架，确立了美利坚合众国及其国家政府，并概述了政府、人民和各州之间的关系。
The most significant features of the US Constitution are the establishment of the rule of law, the creation of a federal system with a supreme national government, the separation of governmental powers into three branches that check and balance each other, its flexibility and the establishment of a republican form of government.
美国宪法的最重要的特性是建立法治,建立一个联邦系统最高国家政府,政府权力的分离成三个分支机构相互制衡,其灵活性和建立共和政体。
The Constitution is considered the supreme law of the land both because of its content and because its authority is derived from the people. The concepts and ideas of the Constitution are the “higher law” in the United States of America, things which a government cannot create or destroy. Among these concepts and ideas is the notion that the people are sovereign and that legitimate governments must be based on popular consent. Because the Constitution was ratified by the representatives of the people, it is a document, in both word and deed, created by and for “we the people.”
宪法被认为是国家的最高法律，既因为它的内容，也因为它的权威来自人民。宪法中的概念和思想是美国的“高级法律”，是政府不能创造或摧毁的东西。在这些概念和思想中，人民是主权的，合法的政府必须建立在公众同意的基础上。因为宪法是由人民代表批准的，所以无论在言语还是行动上，它都是由“我们人民”创造和为“我们人民”创造的。
While the Constitution is the supreme law of the land, most of the specific, day-to-day rules and regulations that bring order to American society are not included in the Constitution itself. These “ordinary” laws are creations of the Congress, state legislatures and city councils. But the notion that laws are more important than the opinions of individual people — even important people — applies to these laws as well. In America, no one is considered to be above the law. In fact, deliberately trying to avoid the law through deception or bribery are crimes in and of themselves. Even a president who violates the law can be held accountable for doing so.
虽然宪法是美国的最高法律，但大多数为美国社会带来秩序的具体的、日常的规章制度并没有包含在宪法中。这些“普通”法律是国会、州立法机构和市议会制定的。但是，法律比个人——甚至是重要人物——的意见更重要的观念，同样适用于这些法律。在美国，没有人可以凌驾于法律之上。事实上，通过欺骗或贿赂故意逃避法律的行为本身就是犯罪。即使是违反法律的总统也要为此负责。

Key Components in the Constitution
The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government. Its first three articles entrench the doctrine of the separation of powers, where by the federal government is divided into three branches: the legislative, consisting of the bicameral Congress; the executive, consisting of the President; and the judicial, consisting of the Supreme Court and other federal courts.Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government.Article Seven establishes the procedure subsequently used by the thirteen States to ratify it.
宪法的关键组成部分
最初由七项条款组成的宪法规定了国家政府的框架。它的前三项条款巩固了权力分立的原则，其中联邦政府分为三个部门:立法部门，由两院制的国会组成;执行部，由总统组成;司法部，由最高法院和其他联邦法院组成。第四条、第五条和第六条确立了联邦制的概念，描述了各州政府的权利和责任，以及各州与联邦政府的关系。第7条规定了后来13个国家为批准它而采用的程序。
lf one accepts that the first 10 amendments (known collectively as the Bill of Rights) were in effect part of the original constitutional settlement, there have only been 17 amendments in over 200 years. One of the major reasons for this is that the Constitution is a very difficult instrument to change.First, a proposed amendment has to secure a two-thirds vote of members present in both houses of Congress. Then three-quarters of the state legislatures have to ratify the proposed change. In general, the first 10 amendments offer specific protections of individual liberty and justice and place restrictions on the powers of government. The majority of the 17 later amendments expand individual civil rights. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures. Amendments to the us Constitution,unlike ones made to many constitutions world-wide, are appended to the end of the document.At seven articles and twenty-seven amendments, it is the shortest written constitution in force.
如果人们承认前10个修正案(统称为《权利法案》)实际上是最初宪法解决方案的一部分，那么200多年来只有17个修正案。其中一个主要原因是，宪法是一个非常难以改变的工具。首先，提出的修正案必须得到参众两院三分之二议员的支持。然后四分之三的州立法机构必须批准提议的改变。总的来说，前10条修正案对个人自由和正义提供了具体保护，并对政府权力施加了限制。后来的17项修正案大多数都扩大了个人的公民权利。另一些则处理与联邦权力有关的问题或修改政府程序和程序。与世界上许多国家的宪法不同，美国宪法的修正案是附加在文件的最后。它只有7条条款和27条修正案，是现行最短的书面宪法。

Section 2 The Four Basic Principles of the United States Government

第二节四个基本美国政府的原则

To implement its essential democratic ideals, the United States has built its government on four elements: (l) popular sovereignty, meaning that the people are the ultimate source of the government’s authority; (2) representative government; (3) checks and balances; and (4)federalism, an arrangement where powers are shared by different levels of government.

为了实现其基本的民主理想，美国建立了自己的政府论四个要素:(1)人民主权，即人民是政府权威的最终来源;(2)代表政府;(三)相互制衡;(4)联邦制，一种由不同级别的政府分享权力的安排。

The first principle of democracy in the United States is popular sovereignty, which defines a system in which the people govern themselves by electing their own leaders. The American government functions to secure this principle and to further the common interests of the people. In previous centuries the source of sovereignty in some countries was the monarchy—the divine right of kings to rule. Americans place the source of authority in the people who, in a democratic society, reign. In this idea the citizens collectively represent and share the nation’s authority. They then express that authority individually by voting to elect leaders to represent them in government.
美国民主的第一原则是人民主权，它定义了一种人民通过选举自己的领导人来管理自己的制度。美国政府的职能是确保这一原则，促进人民的共同利益。在过去的几个世纪里，一些国家主权的来源是君主制度——国王统治的神圣权利。美国人认为，在民主社会中，权力的来源是统治国家的人民。在这种观念中，公民集体代表并分享国家的权力。然后，他们通过投票选举出在政府中代表他们的领导人来表达自己的权威。

The second principle of democracy in the United States is representative government, in which the people delegate their powers to elected officials. In the United States, candidates compete for the Presidency, the Senate, and the House of Representatives, as well as for many state and local positions. In turn these elected officials represent the will of the people and ensure that the government is accountable to its citizens. In a democracy, the people exercise power through elections, which allow adult citizens of the United States the chance to have their voices heard and to influence government. With their vote, they can remove officials who ignore their intentions or who betray their trust. Political leaders are accountable as agents of the people; this accountability is an important feature of the American system of representative government.
美国民主的第二条原则是代议制政府，即人民将权力委托给选举产生的官员。在美国，候选人竞争总统、参议院和众议院，以及许多州和地方职位。反过来，这些民选官员代表了人民的意愿，确保政府对其公民负责。在民主国家，人民通过选举行使权力，使美国成年公民有机会表达自己的意见并影响政府。通过他们的投票，他们可以罢免无视他们意图或辜负他们信任的官员。政治领导人作为人民的代理人是负责任的;这种问责制是美国代议制政府的一个重要特征。
In order to truly work, however, representative government must represent all people. Originally, the only people allowed to vote, and thus to be represented, were white men who owned property — a small percentage of the population. Gradually, voting rights were broadened to include white men without property, blacks, Native Americans, naturalized immigrants, and women.
然而，为了真正发挥作用，代议制政府必须代表全体人民。最初，只有拥有财产的白人男性才有选举权，他们只占人口的一小部分。投票权逐渐扩大，包括没有财产的白人男子、黑人、印第安人、入籍移民和妇女。
The third principle of democracy in the United States is the system of checks and balances. The three branches of government – the legislative, the executive, and the judicial – restrain and stabilize one another through their separated functions. The legislative branch, represented by Congress, must pass bills before they can become law. The executive branch – namely, the President – can veto bills passed by Congress, thus preventing them from becoming law. In turn, by a two-thirds vote, Congress can override the President’s veto. The Supreme Court may invalidate acts of Congress by declaring them contrary to the Constitution of the United States, but Congress can change the Constitution through the amendment process. The President has the authority to appoint Supreme Court Judges to fill vacancies, while the presidential appointments have to be approved by the Congress and Judges appointed serve for life or 10 years as they wish.
美国民主的第三个原则是制衡制度。政府的三个部门——立法、行政和司法——通过各自独立的职能相互约束和稳定。以国会为代表的立法部门必须通过法案才能成为法律。行政部门——即总统——可以否决法案从而阻止了它们成为法律。反过来，以三分之二的票数，国会可以推翻总统的否决。最高法院可以宣布国会的行为违反美国宪法，使其无效，但国会可以通过修正案程序修改宪法。总统有权任命最高法院法官填补空缺，而总统的任命必须得到国会批准，法官的任期可以是终身或10年。

The fourth principle of democracy in the United States is federalism, in which the states and the national government divide authority. This division of power helps curb abuses by either the national or the state governments. The powers of the federal government are limited by the Constitution, which leaves a great deal of authority to the individual states. Each state has an executive, a legislature and a judiciary.The value of the federal system lies in the fact that in such a large and diverse nation, local governing bodies can represent this diversity.Government in America is constructed in such a way that state laws may differ depending on local circumstance — consider the speed limits on local roads,which are often different from state to state.Smaller subdivisions are also flexible enough to respond to some unique situation or element of their population.However, on the other hand, this division and decentralization causes the system to be often unwieldy, slow-moving. and redundant.
美国民主的第四项原则是联邦制，即州和国家政府划分权力。这种权力划分有助于遏制国家或州政府的滥用权力。联邦政府的权力受到宪法的限制，宪法把很大一部分权力留给了各州。每个州都有行政机关、立法机关和司法机关。联邦制的价值在于，在这样一个庞大而多元化的国家，地方政府机构可以代表这种多样性。美国政府的建设方式是这样的，各州的法律可能会根据当地的情况而有所不同——考虑到当地道路的速度限制，各州之间往往是不同的。较小的分支机构也足够灵活，能够对其人口中的某些独特情况或元素作出反应。然而，另一方面，这种划分和去中心化导致系统经常是笨拙的，缓慢的。和冗余。

State and local governments exercise important functions in the United States. They plan and pay for most roads, run public schools, provide water,organize police and fire services,establish zoning regulations, license professions, and arrange elections for their citizens. These are functions that directly affect Americans every day and in every part of their lives.
State and local governments have never been totally separate political entities,because they cooperate in services ranging from welfare to transportation, and because they serve the same residents. Nonetheless, the state has the final decision over local functions. While states are part of the larger entity of a federal system, local governments are creatures of the state.The state government can abolish a local government, merge it with other entities, or give it additional authority. Local authority comes from specific state constitutional provisions or from acts of the state legislatures.
在美国，州和地方政府行使重要职能。他们规划并支付大部分道路费用，经营公立学校，提供水，组织警察和消防服务，建立分区法规，颁发职业许可证，并为公民安排选举。这些功能直接影响着美国人的每一天和生活的每一部分。
州和地方政府从来就不是完全独立的政治实体，因为它们在从福利到交通等各种服务领域都有合作，而且它们为同样的居民服务。尽管如此，州政府对地方职能拥有最终决定权。虽然州是联邦体系中更大实体的一部分，但地方政府是州的产物。州政府可以废除一个地方政府，将其与其他实体合并，或赋予它额外的权力。地方权力来自具体的州宪法规定或州立法机构的行为。

Section 3 The Us Congress and Presidential Elections

第三节美国国会和总统选举
Voting is the people’s chance to decide who they want to run their country and representtheir interests.But how does it work in the United States of America?
投票是人民决定谁来管理自己的国家和代表他们的利益的机会，但在美利坚合众国是如何运作的呢？

Like the UK Parliament, the United States Congress has two houses; the House ofRepresentatives and the Senate.Unlike the UK there are public elections to both houses and athird separate election is held to choose a President. In the US the President is both the headof State and the head of Government. In the UK these roles are carried out separately by theMonarch and the Prime Minister.
和英国议会一样，美国国会有两院，众议院和参议员，不像英国一样，两院都有公开选举，第三次单独选举来选举总统。在美国，总统既是国家元首，也是政府首脑。在英国，这些角色分别由君主和首相执行。

The House of Representatives in the US Congress is designed to give a voice to the peopleof every local voting region in America. Members of the House of Representatives stand forre-election every two years.Each state is split into Districts and each District votes for onerepresentative. The number of Districts depends on the population of each State.For example,California, the most popular State, is split into 53 Districts and has 53 Representativesaccordingly, but Alaska which is huge but has a really small population, only has one Districtand therefore only one Representative in the House.
美国国会众议院的目的是让美国每个地方投票地区的人民都有发言权。众议院议员每两年参加一次选举。每个州被划分为地区，每个地区投票支持一次选举。区的数目视乎每个州的人口而定，例如，最受欢迎的州–加州，被划分为53个区，并有53个代表，而阿拉斯加的人口庞大，但人口却很少，所以只有一个区，所以在众议院只有一名代表。

Like the UK House of Commons, the election system is first past the post so the candidatewith the most votes in each District wins a seat in the House of Representatives. The party thatwins a majority of seats in the house takes control.The ideal situation for president is that thehouse is controlled by their own party. However with elections held every two years, there’s
就像英国下议院一样，选举制度首先超过了这个职位，所以在每个选区得票最多的候选人在众议院赢得了一个席位。赢得众议院多数席位的政党掌握了控制权。对总统来说，理想的情况是众议院由自己的政党控制。然而，每两年举行一次选举，
always a midterm election in the middle of the President’s time in office. If the public thinksthe President is not doing a great job, they can vote in more members of the opposition partymaking it more difficult for the president to pass laws.
总统在任期间的中期选举。如果公众认为总统做的不是很好，他们可以在更多的反对党成员中投票，使总统更难通过法律。
The Senate in the US Congress, like the House of Lords in the UK Parliament, is sometimescalled the Upper House.George Washington described the Senate as the saucer that coolsthe coffee, meaning that it’s their job to scrutinize and question all proposals made by boththe House of Representatives and the President before voting to decide whether they shouldproceed as law.
美国国会的参议院，就像英国议会的上议院一样，有时被称为“上议院”。乔治·华盛顿称参议院是冷却咖啡的碟子，这意味着他们的职责是在投票决定是否应将其作为法律处理之前，对众议院和总统提出的所有提案进行仔细审查和质疑。

Senators, like members of the House of Representatives, are also elected to their seats bythe public. Senators serve six year terms and elections are staggered so every two years a thirdof the Senators run for re-election.Each State is represented by two Senators,regardless of itspopulation and again the “first past the post”voting system is used so the candidate with themost votes wins.
参议员和众议院议员一样，也是由公众选举产生的。参议员任期六年，选举错开，因此每两年有三分之一的参议员竞选连任，每个州都有两名参议员代表，无论其选举结果如何，而且再次采用“先过岗位”的投票制度，以便得票最多的候选人获胜。

So how do Americans choose their leader? Well, Presidential elections take place everyfour years. The two main parties: The Democrats and the Republicans, host big get togetherwhere they choose their Presidential candidates, the person they think will be the best leaderfor the nation. The winning candidate then chooses their Vice Presidential candidate alsoknown as their Running Mate to help support the campaign. Presidential candidates usuallychoose someone with different areas of skill or knowledge so they present voters with the bestpackage.Together they’re known as a ticket.
那么美国人是如何选择他们的领导人的呢？总统选举每四年举行一次。两个主要政党：民主党和共和党，举行大型聚会，选出他们的总统候选人，他们认为这个人将是国家最好的领导人。获胜的候选人然后选择他们的副总统候选人，也被称为他们的竞选伙伴，以帮助支持竞选。总统候选人通常会选择具有不同技能或知识的人，这样他们就能向选民展示最好的一套，因此他们被称为一张票。

Presidential candidates from both parties then start out on massive election campaignsto gain as much voter support as possible. They travel across the country and hold great bigcampaign rallies where they set out the policies and their ideas for the whole country. Thesecampaigns cost money, lots of it, so both candidates have large campaign teams who helpedraise the tens of millions of dollars needed to keep them afloat.
然后，两党的总统候选人开始进行大规模的选举活动，以获得尽可能多的选民支持。他们走遍全国，举行盛大的竞选集会，为全国制定政策和构想。这些钱花了很多钱，所以两位候选人都有庞大的竞选团队，帮助他们度过难关所需的数千万美元。

When it comes to Election Day, the public go to the polls to the one Presidential ticket.So far so easy, however the public don’t vote directly for their choice for President. Insteada system called the Electoral College is used.Each State is allocated a number of Electorsthat will make the final choice. A State has the same number of Electors as it does Senatorsand Representatives. In most States all the Electors will vote for the Presidential ticket whichreceived the most support and public vote.
到了选举日，市民便会选一张总统票，到目前为止，市民是不会直接投票选出总统的。选举团采用了Insteada制度，每个州都分配了若干名选举人，他们将作出最后的选择。一个州的选举人人数与参议员和代表人数相同。在大多数州，所有选举人都将投票支持得到最多支持和公众投票最多的总统候选人。

Finally, the Presidential ticket with the most Electoral College votes becomes Presidentand Vice President of the United States of America.
最后，选举人团选票最多的总统候选人成为美利坚合众国总统和副总统。
Appendix :
附录：

6 Steps to the White house (American Presidential Election)Step 1.Primaries and Caucuses:
进入白宫的6步(美国总统选举)1.初级和核心小组：

In a presidential election year, many candidates usually enter the race for president. But
在总统选举年，许多候选人通常参加总统竞选。但
only one candidate from each political party can be nominated (formally chosen) to run. Sofrom February to June, the states hold elections called primaries or party meetings calledcaucuses to give voters a say in which candidates get nominated.
每个政党只有一名候选人能被提名(正式选举)参选。因此，从2月到6月，各州举行了名为初选或政党会议的选举，以便让选民对候选人获得提名有发言权。

Step 2. National Party Convention
步骤2.国家缔约方公约

In late summer, the Democratic and Republican parties hold separate nationalconventions (meetings) for their state delegates (party representatives).The delegates usuallynominate the winner of the state primaries and caucuses to be their party’s presidentialcandidate.
在夏末，民主党和共和党分别为各自的州代表(政党代表)举行全国代表大会(会议)。代表们通常把州初选和党团会议的获胜者作为本党的总统候选人。

Step 3.Presidential Campaign
第三步总统竞选

The presidential nominees (candidates who were nominated by their party) go on thecampaign trail, traveling around the country. They try to win the support of voters by talkingabout how they would lead the country.
被提名的总统候选人(由他们的政党提名的候选人)走上正轨，在全国各地旅行。他们试图通过谈论如何领导国家来赢得选民的支持。

Step 4. Election Day
步骤4.选举日

The general election is always held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday inNovember.On this day, millions of Americans vote for a president and vice president. Thewinner of the popular vote is usually declared by the end of the day.
大选总是在11月的第一个星期一之后的第一个星期二举行，在这一天，数以百万计的美国人投票选举总统和副总统。全民投票的获胜者通常在一天结束前宣布。

Step 5.Electoral College
第5步选举团

Before the election results are final, officials called electors — who make up a body calledthe Electoral College — must cast their votes for president in December. The candidate whowins a majority of electoral votes officially wins the election.
在选举结果成为最终结果之前，名为选举人的官员–他们组成了一个被称为选举团的机构–必须在12月投票选举总统。获得多数选举人票的候选人正式赢得了选举。

Step 6.The white House
第六步白宫

The elected president is inaugurated (sworn into office) on January 20.The president’sfour-year term begins on this date.
当选总统于1月20日宣誓就职。总统四年任期从这一天开始。

Section 4 US Political Parties

第四节美国政党
The United States follows a bipartisan or two-party system, in which there are twomajor political parties that hold the majority of the political offices. These two parties and areintended to work together to achieve a colesive government that best represents the interestsof the American people.
美国实行的是两党制或两党制，其中有两个政党占据了多数政治职位。这两个政党旨在共同努力，建立一个最能代表美国人民利益的政府。

History of Political Parties in the United States
美国政党史

However, the political party system in the United States wasn’t always this way, and wasnever meant to be a partisan system.First President of the United States George Washingtonwas not a member of any political party, and had hoped that the system could continuewithout political parties, fearing that could hinder change. Despite this, the party systemwas created under Washington’s administration, beginning with the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury under President Washington,formed the Federalist Party, while James Madison and Thomas Jefferson founded theDemocratic-Republican Party in response.The Federalist Party preferred a strong nationalgovernment, while the Democratic-Republicans favored state rights and less federal control.
但是，美国的政党制度并不总是这样，从来就不是一个党派制度，第一，美国总统乔治·华盛顿不是任何政党的成员，希望这一制度能够在没有政党的情况下继续下去，因为担心这会阻碍变革。尽管如此，这一政党体系还是在华盛顿政府的领导下创立的，首先是联邦主义者和反联邦主义者。华盛顿总统领导下的财政部长亚历山大汉密尔顿组建了联邦党，而詹姆斯麦迪逊和托马斯杰斐逊则成立了民主共和党，联邦党更倾向于一个强大的国家政府，而民主党则更倾向于国家权利而不是联邦控制。

Since then, the political parties have changed many times over, with new parties sproutingup in opposition to others,promoting various styles of government. The Democratic-Republican Party divided into two opposing groups around the election of 1824.TheDemocratic Party, then called the Jacksonian Democrats for President Andrew Jackson, alongwith the opposing Whigs dominated the political scene in the first half of the century. TheWhigs fell out of favor in the 1850s, but the Republican Party soon grew in its place, adoptingmany of its policies.
自那时以来，各政党发生了多次变化，新政党纷纷涌现，反对其他政党，推动各种政府形式的发展。在1824年的大选中，民主党和反对党辉格党(辉格党)在本世纪上半个世纪的政治舞台上占据了主导地位。当时，民主党与反对党辉格党(辉格党)一起被称为杰克逊总统的杰克逊尼民主党。辉格党在19世纪50年代就失宠了，但是共和党很快就取代了它，采纳了它的许多政策。

The early Democratic Party placed emphasis on morality and was generally consideredconservative,while today’s Democrats are considered liberal and progressive, with emphasison personal liberties and human rights.The Republican Party of the 1850s was anti-slaveryand fairly progressive, electing Abraham Lincoln to the presidency in the 1860 election.
早期的民主党强调道德，普遍认为是保守的，而今天的民主党则被认为是自由派和进步派，强调个人自由和人权。19世纪50年代的共和党是反奴役和相当进步的，在1860年的选举中选举亚伯拉罕林肯为总统。

Today’s major political parties, the Democratic Party and Republican Party, are based onthe parties formed in the 1850s, though their policies have shifted over time.The DemocraticParty is the oldest US political party. Traditionally, the Democratic Party has sought to take aliberal position on domestic issues. The Republican Party, the younger of the two parties, hasa broadly conservative agenda encompassing the economy and social values, favoring fiscalconservatism, fewer government regulations, and lower taxes with a focus on morality.
今天的主要政党-民主党和共和党，是以19世纪50年代成立的政党为基础的，尽管它们的政策随着时间的推移而发生了变化，民主党是美国历史最悠久的政党。传统上，民主党试图在国内问题上采取自由立场。两党中较年轻的共和党有着广泛保守的议程，包括经济和社会价值观，支持财政保守主义，减少政府监管，降低税收，并注重道德。
The Donkey and the Elephant
驴子和大象

The Donkey first came to represent the Democratic Party around the 1828 Presidentialelection of Andrew Jackson, whose opponents had attempted to label him as a jackass.Jackson decided to adopt the animal as his campaign mascot.Political cartoonist, ThomasNast, later used the animal as a symbol of the Democratic Party to represent the stubbornnesshe believed the party leaders showed.Nast also used the symbol of the elephant, stamped withthe words “Republican Vote,” to represent the Republican Party.
大约在1828年的安德鲁·杰克逊总统选举中，“驴子”第一次代表民主党，杰克逊的对手曾试图把他贴上头巾的标签。杰克逊决定把这头驴当作竞选吉祥物。政治漫画家托马斯·纳斯特后来用这只动物作为民主党的象征来代表她认为民主党领导人表现出来的顽固。纳斯特还用大象的象征，用“共和党投票”这个字来代表共和党。

Third Party
第三方

Any political party in the United States other than Republican or Democratic is considereda third party or independent party. Because of the Us electoral system, in which most statesfollow the single-member district rule and a winner-take-all model, third parties do not oftenreceive a substantial number of electoral votes.
除共和党或民主党外，美国的任何政党都是考虑周到的第三方或独立政党。由于美国的选举制度–多数政治家都遵循单一成员选区规则和胜利者统领模式–第三方往往得不到大量的选举人票。

However, third party candidates are effective in another way. They often bring attentionto important issues, including problems with the two main political parties, when they receiveprotest votes. The winning politician can then see that a significant number of constituentscare about the particular issue, and can address it. Third parties can also affect election resultsby taking away votes from the Republican or Democratic candidate.
然而，第三方候选人在另一种方式下是有效的。他们在接受抗议投票时，往往会把注意力放在重要问题上，包括两个主要政党之间的问题。获胜的政治家就可以看到对特定问题的大量宪法恐慌，并能够解决这一问题。第三方也可以通过剥夺共和党或民主党候选人的选票来影响选举结果。

The main third parties in the United States are the Green Party, Libertarian Party, andConstitution Party. Other third parties include a US Socialist Party, Communist Party, andReform Party.The many third parties fall all along the political scale, from conservative toprogressive, along with single-issue groups, which focus on a specific issue.
美国的主要第三方是绿党、自由意志党和宪法党。其他的第三党包括美国社会党、共产党和改革党，许多第三党在政治上从保守到进步，以及单一问题的集团，集中在一个特定的问题上。

第六章节：

Healthcare and Health Insurance医疗保健和健康保险

Section 1 International Students – A Guide to the National Health Service (NHS)

第一节留学生入学指南 国民保健制度
NHS （英国国家医疗服务体系）
The following NHS treatment is free to everyone, including all international students:
以下NHS治疗对每个人，包括所有国际学生都是免费的：
some emergency treatment (but not follow-up treatment)
一些紧急治疗(但不是后续治疗)
family planning services
计划生育服务
diagnosis and treatment of certain communicable diseases.
某些传染病的诊断和治疗。
To qualify for any other free or subsidized NHS treatment, you must meet certain conditions. This depends on factors such as your nationality/immigration status,thelength of your course, and where you are studying (for example, there are different rules for Scotland).To find out if you are entitled to full NHS treatment, please visit the UK Council for International Student Affairs (UKCISA) website.
若要获得任何其他免费或补贴的NHS治疗，您必须满足一定的条件。这取决于你的国籍/移民身份，你的课程时间，以及你在哪里学习(例如，苏格兰有不同的规则)。要想知道你是否有权享受完整的国民健康保险待遇，请访问英国国际学生事务委员会(UKCISA)的网站。
EEA Nationals
EEA全国

lf you come from a European Economic Area(EEA) country, you and your family qualifyfor full NHS treatment. You should obtain a European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) beforecoming to the UK, which entitles you to treatment.EEA countries are: Austria,Belgium,Bulgaria,Cyprus,Czech Republic, Denmark,Estonia, Finland,France,Germany, Greece,Hungary, Iceland,Republic of lreland, Italy, Latvia,Liechtenstein,Lithuania, Luxembourg.Malta, The Netherlands,Norway, Poland,Portugal，Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain andSweden.
如果你来自欧洲经济区(EEA)国家，你和你的家人都有资格接受NHS的全面治疗。欧洲经济区国家包括：奥地利、比利时、保加利亚、塞浦路斯、捷克共和国、丹麦、爱沙尼亚、芬兰、法国、德国、希腊、匈牙利、冰岛、爱尔兰共和国、意大利、拉脱维亚、列支敦士登、立陶宛、卢森堡、马耳他、荷兰、挪威、波兰、葡萄牙、罗马尼亚、斯洛伐克、斯洛文尼亚、西班牙和瑞典。
Non-EEA Nationals
非EEA国家

lf you are not from an EEA country, you’ll still qualify for full NHS treatment if you meetthe following conditions:
如果你不是来自欧洲经济区的国家，如果你符合以下条件，你仍然有资格接受完全的国民保健服务治疗：

If your course lasts six months or more. In England and Wales, if you have a husband,wife or children accompanying you as your dependents (not just as your visitors), theycan also receive treatment. However, the children must be under the age of sixteen (ornineteen, if in full-time education).
如果你的课程持续六个月或更长时间。在英格兰和威尔士，如果你有丈夫、妻子或子女陪伴你作为你的受抚养人(不仅仅是作为你的访客)，他们也可以接受治疗。然而，孩子们必须在16岁以下(或者19岁，如果是全日制的话).

lf your course is less than six months long and you are studying in Scotland.
如果你的课程不到六个月，你在苏格兰学习。

lf your course is less than six months long, and the UK government is providing at least35 percent of the funding for your course. You will need to provide evidence of this.However, you might not be eligible for GP treatment.
如果你的课程不到6个月，而英国政府至少为你的课程提供了35%的资金。你需要提供这方面的证据，但你可能没有资格接受全科医生的治疗。
lf you are not entitled to NHS treatment, you should take out private health insurancebefore you leave home.Even if you are eligible for NHS treatment, it is advisable to take outhealth insurance anyway as there can be long waiting times for some NHS services. Ask yourschool, college or university for advice too — they may offer a specially arranged policy fortheir students.
如果你没有资格接受国民健康服务，你应该在离家前购买私人健康保险，即使你有资格接受国民保健服务，但还是最好是参加财富保险，因为有些NHS服务可能需要很长的等待时间。向你的学校、学院或大学征求意见–他们可能会为他们的学生提供一个特别安排的政策。

Planning your travel
计划你的旅行

Before you can travel to the UK, you may be asked for health certificates proving youhave had vaccinations against diseases such as tuberculosis(肺结核) , tetanus(破伤风),polio (小儿麻痹) , diphtheria(白喉) , meningitis C(脑膜炎) and measles (麻疹),mumps(腮腺炎) and rubella (风疹)(MMR).If you are coming from a tuberculosis (TB)high-risk area, a chest x-ray report may also be required. Don’t forget to bring copies ofyour health certificates with you when you travel to the UK —you may need to showthem when you pass through immigration control.
在你去英国旅行之前，你可能会被要求提供健康证明，证明你接种过结核病(肺结核)、破伤风(破伤风)、脊髓灰质炎(小儿麻痹)、白喉(白喉)、脑膜炎C(脑膜炎)和麻疹(麻疹)、腮腺炎(腮腺炎)和风疹(风疹)等疾病的疫苗。如果你来自结核病(TB)高风险地区，也可能需要胸部X光报告。当你去英国旅行时，别忘了带上你的健康证明复印件–当你通过移民管制时，你可能需要出示它们。

lf you are undergoing medical treatment, have pre-existing serious health issues, orif you are registered as disabled, talk to your school, college or university before youenroll to find out what support they offer.
如果你正在接受治疗，有预先存在的严重健康问题，如果你注册为残疾人，在你注册前与你的学校、学院或大学联系，以了解他们提供了什么支持。

When you travel to the UK, bring your prescription papers and a doctor’s letter / report(translated into English), giving details of your condition, all treatment and medicationyou require, plus any assistance you will need while you study in the UK.
当你去英国旅行时，带上你的处方文件和医生的信/报告(翻译成英文)，详细说明你的病情，所有的治疗和所需的药物，以及你在英国学习时所需要的任何帮助。

When traveling, check with your transport provider what medications you are allowedto take on board with you and what you can take through customs.
在旅行时，请向你的运输服务商询问哪些药物是你可以随身携带的，哪些是你可以通过海关服用的。

今天的文章【大二英美概况】_英美概况是什么课程「建议收藏」分享到此就结束了，感谢您的阅读。